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Use and Abuse of the Steam-Boiler. 


OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. 


The Iron Age, N.Y, 

This work is intended to be a hand-book for the fireman, pur- 
chaser, and user of boilers, rather than for the boiler-maker or 
scientific man. The work is somewhat smaller than the other 
hand-books by the same author. It is, however, bound in uni- 
form style with them. Most of the common forms of boilers 
are illustrated, as well as many of those not usually seen. The 
author aims, he tells us, at a dissemination of plain, practical, 
and correct information in regard to the functions of the steam- 
boiler, its care and management. The work, as a whole, is valu- 
_ able, presenting in a compact form many of the tables, facts, 
and figures which have heretofore been scattered among a wide 
range of authorities. 


Engineering News, Chicago, Ill, 

Mr. Roper is the author of several well-known hand-books 
relating to the steam-engine, and steam machinery in general. 
In this, his latest work, he states that his object is “simply to 
show what the results of his thirty years’ personal experience 
with all classes of boilers prove to be the safest and most dura- 
ble materials for their manufacture, to show the absolute ne- 
cessity of good workmanship in their construction, and to call 
the attention of owners, engineers, and firemen to the rules that 
limit their usefulness, safety, and longevity.” As in all his 
other hand-books, the writer addresses himself to men of ordi- 
nary intelligence,— those found in charge of steam-engines and 
boilers,—and in consequence his book is written in the plainest 
and most intelligible language that can be chosen. We have not 
the time, nor possibly the necessary amount of practical knowl- 
edge of all the latest improvements in steam-boilers, to criticise 
closely and intelligently the contents of the book, but in con- 
nection with it we would call attention to the large number 

1 


USE AND ABUSE OF THE STEAM-BOILER,. 


of boiler explosions, attended with great loss of life, that have 
recently occurred in this country and in England, and which, 
upon investigation, have been proven to be the results of igno- 
rance and carelessness on the part of attendants, and we cannot 
but think that steam-users would find it greatly to their advan- 
tage if such plain handy-books as those of Mr. Roper’s were 
placed in the hands of every attendant upon a steam-boiler or 
engine, and his attention called to the advantage of making 
himself familiar with its contents. 


The Locomotive, Hartford, Conn, 

“UsE AND ABUSE OF THE STEAM-BOILER.’”’—Stephen 
Roper, of Philadelphia, is the author of several hand-books on 
Steam-Engineering, which we have noticed in the LOCOMOTIVE, 
from time to time, as they have been issued. Their great merit 
is, that they are adapted to the wants of those whose circum- 
stances had prevented them from obtaining such an education 
as will enable them to cope with the various formule that enter — 
into the higher branches of steam-engineering. Most works 
on steam shoot over the heads of this class of people. And yet, 
when we come to the matter of actually handling a boiler, or 
an engine in use, their practical experience is invaluable. 

We have said thus much by way of introducing a new work 
which Mr. Roper has just issued, viz., USE AND ABUSE OF THE 
STHAM-BOILER. This contains just the kind of information 
that a person having the care of steam-boilers needs, and 
such information as we have put forth in our various pub- 
lications from time to time. We heartily recommend it to all 
persons who have to do with steam-boilers, whether as proprie- 
tors or engineers. The hand-books which Mr. Roper has issued 
are as follows: ‘‘ Catechism of Steam-Engines,” ‘ Hand-Book 
of the Locomotive,” ‘‘ Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-En- 
gines,” “ Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines,” “ Use and 
Abuse of the Steam-Boiler.” 

Mr. Roper’s address is 447 North Broad Street, Philadelphia, 
and those having the care of steam-boilers cannot do better 
than address him on the subject. 

2 


USE AND ABUSE OF THE STEAM-BOILER. 


The Newark Artisan, Newark, N, J, 


We have, from time to time, favorably noticed the publica- 
tions, relating to the steam-engine proper and its collaterals, by 
Stephen Roper, 447 North Broad Street, Philadelphia, Pa., and 
published by Messrs. Claxton, Remsen & Haffelfinger of that 
city. The recent publication, USE AND ABUSE OF THE STEAM- 
BOILER, meets our most hearty approval, as embodying fully 
all its title indicates. The work is entirely devoid of abstruse 
terms, and comes squarely down to the understanding of the 
ordinarily educated mechanic in so plain a manner as cannot 
be misunderstood. As we have said of Mr. Roper’s previous 
publications, we now say of this,—that employers can do them- 
selves no greater service than placing a copy of this work in 
the hands of the employé in charge of their engines. 


North-western Lumberman, Chicago, Ill, 


As the author of “ Roper’s Hand-Book of the Eeattaitve, ? 
‘“‘ Roper’s Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines,’’ “‘ Roper’s 
Catechism of High Pressure or Non-Condensing Steam-En- 
- gines,” and of other valuable contributions to our mechanical 
literature, Mr. Roper needs no introduction to such of our 
readers as are interested in steam machinery. Like his former 
works, the USE AND ABUSE OF THE STEAM-BOILER is emi- 
nently practical in its character and designed for the use of 
practical men. ‘Bearing in mind the difficulty which ordinary 
mechanics experience in endeavoring, as they sometimes do, to 
extract information from books of a scientific nature, he has 
used plain, clear language, to convey his meaning instead of 
ambiguous scientific terms, and where it has been necessary to 
give mathematical information, has employed simple arith- 
metical calculations, in lien of abstruse algebraic formule. 
From an experience with boilers and steam machinery extend- 
_ ing over a period of thirty years, Mr. Roper has been able to 
gather an amount of practical knowledge which, combined with 
that derived from other sources and condensed and arranged 

3 


USE AND ABUSE OF THE STEAM-BOILER., 


in the convenient form in which we find it, makes one of the 
most valuable books for reference and instruction, in this par- 
ticular department, to be found in the language. It is wide in 
its scope, and includes besides a full description and explanation 
of nearly all the different styles of boilers which the genius of 
the nineteenth century inventor has produced, how best to use 
and preserve them and their attachments; a large quantity of 
additional matter in the way of rules for estimating the strength 
of materials, safe working pressure, horse-power and heating 
surface of steam-boilers, etc., ete. The tables, which are plen- 
tifully interspersed throughout the work—and which are 
fortunately arranged so as to be comprehensible even to those 
who are not Ph. D.’s —also contain within a small space a vast 
amount of information which is of practical value to the every- 
day engineer. It is printed in large, clear type, and bound in 
morocco, in handy, pocket-book form, and is in all respects a 
volume which every one interested in steam will be the pi 
and wiser for having in his possession. 


National Carbullder, New York City. 

This is a very compact and comprehensive pocket manual, 
and is the only book that has been published in this country 
devoted exclusively to this subject. The various kinds of steam- 
boilers now in use, comprising stationary, locomotive, fire and 
marine, are illustrated and described. Rules are given for esti- 
mating strength of materials, safe working pressure, horse- 
power, heating surface, ete. Nothing is omitted pertaining to 
the functions, care, and management of boilers. The yolume is 
a plain, practical treatise, devoid of scientific technicalities and 
algebraic formulas, and can be easily understood by the ordi- 
nary reader. It should be in the hands of every mechanic in 
charge of steam-boilers. There is a general and analytical 


index. 
4 


- USE AND ABUSE 


OF 


THE STEAM-BOILER 


BY 
STEPHEN ROPER, ENGINEER, 


Author of 
‘Roper’s Catechism of High-Pressure or Non-Condensing Steame 
Engines,” “ Roper’s Hand-Book of the Locomotive,” “ Roper’s 
Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines,” “ Roper’s 
Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines,” “ Roper’s 
Handy-Book for Engineers,” “ Roper’s Improve- 
ments in Steam-Engines”, etc., etc, 


With Kilusteations, 


ELEVENTH EDITION, REVISED. 


PHILADELPHIA: 
EDWARD MEEKS, 
1012 Watyvur Srreer, 
1890, 


Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1876, by 
EDWARD MEEKS, 
in the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington. 


Prete rere Cree eeererrrrr ees eeee rere ever er eee eee a errerr reer ever rrre rrr recer retirees eee eee 1) = 


am Oe 
a> © 


Roos 
\QAU 
TO 
JAMES M. ALLEN, Eso., 


PRESIDENT OF THE HARTFORD STEAM-BOILER INSPECTION 
AND INSURANCE COMPANY, 


This Volume 


IS 
RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED 
BY 
THE AUTHOR, 


As amark of appreciation of the eminent services which he has 
rendered humanity by his thorough investigations into 
the causes of steam-boiler explosions, by means 
of which they have been stripped of 
e their apparent mystery and 
assigned to real 
causes, 


ili 





INTRODUCTION, 


‘TT is not the writer’s intention to enter into an elab- 
orate discussion on the relative merits of the dif- 
ferent varieties of boilers now in use, nor on the open 
and unsettled questions connected with steam-boiler 
engineering, such as the horse-power of boilers, the 
quantity of grate and heating surface which should 
constitute the commercial horse-power, the propor- 
tion of safety-valves to grate and heating surface, or 
what part of the shell, flues, or tubes of a boiler 
should be considered heating surface. His object 
being simply to show what the results gathered from 
experience prove to be the safest and most durable 
materials for their manufacture, to show the absolute 
necessity of good workmanship in their construction, 
and to call the attention of owners, engineers, and 
firemen to the evils that limit their usefulness, safety, 
and longevity. ; 

The writer’s experience with all classes of boilers 
extends over a period of thirty years, which enables 
him to fully understand the kind of information 


most needed by the men generally found in charge 
eure Sie ¥ 


vi INTRODUCTION. 


of them, and he has tried to convey his meaning in 
language so plain that it may be understood by any 
person of ordinary intellect. Of what use are alge- 
braical formule to men who do not fully understand 
them? Do we not write and speak to make our- 
selves understood? If so, why should anything be 
embodied in a work on the care and management of 
steam-boilers which persons of the most limited 
education cannot comprehend? Until quite recently, 
it was impossible, for persons needing information, to 
procure a plain, practical treatise on this subject; 
this arose, perhaps, from the fact, that men who had 
attained proficiency in this line of business had no 
taste for devoting their time to writing, and that 
those whose circumstances enabled them to do so 
were prevented by a want of that practical knowl- 
edge which can only be obtained by years of hard 
work, close study and observation. 

The great mistake of many writers on the steam- 
boiler and steam-engine is, that they write too much ; 
if they would condense and render such explanations 
as would.come within the comprehension of men of 
ordinary intelligence, they would do more to diffuse 
information among the class of men for whom they 
pretend to write than by writing elaborate treatises, 


INTRODUCTION, © Vii 


replete with algebraical formule and purely scien- 
tific terms, and couched in language incapable of 
being understood by the very men who most need 
the information, leaving them to interpret the mean- 
ing as best they may. What engineers and mechanics 
generally want is perspicuous and terse language, 
concise expressions and clear explanations. 

It is also quite customary for writers on the steam- 
boiler to regale their readers with accounts of the 
able researches of Joule, Peclet, Rankine, and others; 
in the’ field of Thermo-dynamics, which, however 
edifying to the writers themselves, can be of no value 
to men having charge of steam-boilers, as not one in 
one thousand of them, even if they could procure 
these scientific theories, (which is extremely doubtful, 
as the researches of Joule and Peclet were never 
published in the English language,) would be able to 
decipher or understand them; and Rankine’s works, 
though quite common, are nevertheless beyond the 
comprehension of the majority of men in charge of 
steam-boilers. There is far greater need for the dis- 
semination of plain, practical, and correct information 
in regard to the functions of the steam-boiler, its care 
and management, than of the steam-engine, because 
the former is more subject to the uncertainties of 


Vill INTRODUCTION. 


indiscretion and ignorance than the latter, and in the 
case of the former, neglect is attended with more 
serious results. . 
Rules are given for estimating the strength of 

materials, safe working pressure, horse-power and 

heating surface of steam-boilers, the collapsing pres- 

sure of flues, etc., and also the aggregate strain to 

which boiler shells and flues are subjected when in 

use, as a knowledge of the material so extensively 

employed in the construction of steam-boilers, and 

the strains to which they are subjected, must be of 

great value to engineers, whether engaged in the 
construction of new or in the repairing of old ones. 

In fact, it has been the main object of the writer, in 

the preparation of this book, to put in practical shape, 

for the benefit of engineers and steam-users, the in- 

formation collected from his own experience, as well 

as from other reliable sources; and while, in the 
preparation of the book, it became necessary to dis- 
cuss the relative merits and peculiarities of a great 
variety of steam-generators, the writer has endeavored 
to do so without prejudice, and solely with the view 
of benefiting the class of persons for whom the book 
was intended. 8S. R. 


CONTENTS. 


For a full reference to the Contents in detail, see Index, 


page 341. ‘ 
5 PAGE 
ADJUNCTS OF THE STEAM-BOILER . ; ; PLO 
STrEAM-BOILERS : ; ‘ ? ‘ Rees Ws 
DESIGN OF STEAM-BOILERS .. , ; : oe ont) 
ForMs OF STEAM-BOILERS P ‘ ; on OT 
THE PLAIN CYLINDER BOILER ; ‘ F au 28 
THE FLUE BOILER . : J ‘ . F . 28 
THE TUBULAR BOILER . ; 5 ; . PRE 
THE DOUBLE-DECK BOILER . : r ‘ 31 
THE DROP-FLUE BOILER. ‘ i . P Sige 
THE LOCOMOTIVE BOILER : ; , ’ . 83 
FIRE-BOX BOILERS . F j ; : A pet 
TUBULOUS BOILERS . ! ; ‘ : ‘ . oo 
S1zE OF BOILERS : ‘ . , , rae ¥ 6 
SECTIONAL STEAM-BOILERS . ; : 88 
MARINE BOILERS . , AL, 49, 46 
Table showing the Nimbes of Bidars Feet of 
Heating Surface to 1 Square Foot of Grate Sur- 
face in the Boilers of noted Ocean, River, and 
Ferry-boat Steamers . : ; : é . 47 
BOILER-HEADS . ; : F : . “ 8 HO 
STEAM-DOMES . - ; ‘ P : . . Oa 
MUD-DRUMS. ‘ 56 


W ATER-SPACE AND ee -ROOM IN aay as BOILERS 58 
ix 


x CONTENTS. 


DIAMETER AND LENGTH OF STEAM-BOILERS AND 
THICKNESS OF BOILER-PLATE . : : ‘ 
EVAPORATION IN STEAM-BOILERS . : ; . 
EVAPORATIVE EFFICIENCY OF STEAM-BOILERS . 
CLAPP AND JONES’ VERTICAL CIRCULATING TUBU- 
LAR BOILER 5 : : . ; 1 ; 
METHODS OF TESTING THE EVAPORATIVE EFFI- 
CIENCY OF STEAM-BOILERS : : : ; 
“PROPORTION OF GRATE SURFACE TO HEATING 
SURFACE. jo +. : ‘ F : ‘ : 
INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL CORROSION OF STEAM- 
BOILERS . 3 , 2 ; HG , 
INTERNAL GROOVING IN STEAM-BOILERS : : 
SILSBY’S VERTICAL TUBULAR BOILER . , ‘ 
EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION OF. BOILERS . ‘ 
‘-HEATING-SURFACE OF STEAM-BOILERS . ; 4 
Rules for finding the Heating-surface of Steam- 
boilers : ; ? E , : E 5 
THE LATTA STEEL COIL-BOILE ‘ 2 ; : 
HORSE-POWER OF STEAM-BOILERS . ; : A 
THE MooRHOUSE SAFETY SECTIONAL BOILER : 
SETTING STEAM-BOILERS . : : ; : : 
TESTING STEAM-BOILERS . ; ‘ ‘ 
REPAIRING STEAM-BOILERS . ; ; ; 
NEGLECT OF STEAM-BOILERS . ‘ : ; ; 
THE WIEGAND SECTIONAL BOILER. , ‘ ; 
SAFE WORKING PRESSURE OF STEAM-BOILERS : 
Table of Safe Internal Pressures for Steel Boilers. 
Table of Safe Internal. Pressures for Iron Boilers. 
THE ROGER’s AND BLACK BOILER . , ; é 
SELECTION OF STEAM-BOILERS. ; i ; ; 
PULSATION IN STEAM-BOILERS ; ; 4 : 
PIERCE’S ROTARY TUBULAR BOILER : A : 


PAGE 


59 
61 
63 


69 
70 
73. 


73 
78 
80 
80 
83 


87 
89 
92 
98 
100 


. 108 
. 107 


110 
111 
115 
119 
128 
129 
129 
131 
133 


CONTENTS, 


LOCATION OF STEAM-BOILERS . ; : 
THE HARRISON BOILER . : : : ‘ 
BOILER-FLUES . : : 

Table of Squares of Thickntes of Ten ane Gar 
stant Numbers to be used in Auda the Safe 
External Pressure for Boiler-flues 

Table of Safe Working External Pressures on 
Flues 10 Feet long 

Table of Safe Working Eutenial Beccares on 
Flues 20 Feet long 

COLLAPSING PRESSURE OF Wrovenn IRON chee aes 
FLUES 4 INCH THICK . 

COLLAPSING PRESSURE OF Wrovdene TRON Boreas 
FLUES 7°, INCH THICK 

' COLLAPSING PRESSURE OF Wrowae? -IRON Borie: 
FLUES 3 INCH THICK. 

Rahat PRESSURE OF WrougEe IRON Bonne 
FLUES 7; INCH THICK ; ‘ ; j 

THE SHAPLEY BOILER } : ; ‘ 

BoILeR TUBES . ; ; ‘ é : 

THE PHLEGER BOILER . ; : 

Tables of Superficial Areas of External Buibfated 
of Tubes of Various Lengths, Diameters in 
Square Feet ; 

Table of Superficial hiene of Tubes of different 
Lengths and Diameters from 23 to 3 Inches and 
from 8 to 20 Feet : ; 

Srmam- BOILER CONNECTIONS AND Movtenu terra ; 


GAUGE-COCKS . : ‘ : . 
STEAM-GAUGES. P , A : y 4 : 
GLASS WATER-GAUGES ., : ( ‘ " 


THE BABcock AND WILCOX’S Serra STEAM- 
BOILER . . . .) . L] e ‘J 


xii CONTENTS. 


SAFETY-VALVES : : : : 
Table showing the Tike of Safety- Walves, { in parts 
of an Inch at different Pressures : : : 
Table of Comparison between Experimental 
Results and Theoretical Formule . 
RURES SO eras TS AE SR meee tire oh, 
WITTINGHAM’S ToRuLods BortER. 5 ° 5 
FOAMING IN STEAM-BOILERS . é . ‘ P 
INCRUSTATION IN STEAM-BOILERS . : : ‘ 
PREVENTION AND REMOVAL OF SCALE IN STEAM- 
BOILERS . F , : ‘ ; ‘ , 
STEAM-BOILER EXPLOSIONS . ; : i 
EXPERIMENTAL BOILER EXPLOSIONS . , ‘ 
THE Root BoILER . : : i : 
VAGARIES OF EXPERTS IN REGARD To STEAM- 
BOILER EXPLOSIONS . " : ‘ ‘ A 
DEFECTS IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF STEAM-BOILERS. 


IMPROVEMENTS IN STEAM-BOILERS. ; P Aree 


THE ALLEN BOILER. : : ; : é : 


CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF STEAM-BOILERS. ah 


INSTRUCTIONS FOR FIRING . j , ‘ ‘ 
DAMPERS . : ( ; ‘ ; : , ; 
STEAM-BOILER INSPECTION . ; 
Rules for finding the Quantity of Water whih 
Boilers and other Cylindrical Vessels are capa- 
ble of Containing . 5 i : ; 
EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF Furi ON STEAM- 

BOILERS . c : ; ‘ é , ; 
BoILER MATERIALS. ‘ : ; d 4 : 
STEEL : : s : f ‘ Q ‘ 
STRENGTH OF IRON BoILER- PLATE. 4 ? i 
DEFINITIONS AS APPLIED TO BOILERS AND BOILER 

MATERIALS : : ; : ‘ ; : 


277 


CONTENTS. 


PUNCHED AND DRILLED HOLEs FOR BOILER SEAMS. 281 
Table showing the Strength of Welded Boiler- 
plates. ; 3 : . ‘ . 286 
PATENT BOILERS Zot 
THE GALLOWAY BOILER. i's ame 
STRENGTH OF RIVETED SEAMS . 290 
COMPARATIVE STRENGTH OF SINGLE- AND Taine: 
RIVETED SEAMS, (i291 
HAND- AND MACHINE-RIVETING . 298 
COUNTER-SUNK RIVETS . 295 
RIVETS . 296 
Table hie ae irntter ine Pitch of Heats ae 
different Thicknesses of Plate e297 
STRENGTH OF STAYED AND FLAT BOILER Sie las 297 
BOILER-STAYS . . 299 
STAY-BOLTS . ol 
CALKING . : . 303 
TESTING-MACHINES . . 3808 
FEED-WATER HEATERS . . 809 


Table showing the Units of Héas eared ie oa. 
vert One Pound of Water, at the Temperature 
of 32° Fah., into Steam at different Pressures 

GRATE-BARS 
CHIMNEYS. ; 

Table showing ae Prones Diet vi Height 

of Chimney for any kind of Fuel 


of Area of Section of the Chimney . ; 
SMOKE : ; 
CONTRIVANCES FOR > dacetaeaa Da iiene AND 
ECONOMIZING FUEL IN BOILER FURNACES . 
2 


xiii 


PAGE 


. 311 
. 314 


. 815 


. 317 
Table showing Heights of Chimneys for Draduoltce 
certain Rates of Combustion per Square Foot 


. 318 
» 319 


321 


xiv CONTENTS. 


Table showing the Actual Extension of Wrought- 

iron at various Temperatures. : . 824 
Table showing the Linear Dilatations of Bislida 

by Heat . : . 826 
Table deduced from ix nenenr erie on Loh Plates 

for Steam-boilers, by the Franklin Institute, 

Philadelphia . . 826 
Table showing the Readies af Experiments er 

on different Brands of Boiler Iron at the Stevens 

Institute of Technology, Hoboken, N. J. . . 827 
Table showing the Weight of Cast-iron Balls from 

3 to 13 Inches in Diameter. ‘ . 828 
Table showing the Weight of Cast-iron Plates per 

Superficial Foot as per Thickness. . 828 
Table showing the Weight of Round-iron fou 4 

an Inch to 6 Inches Diameter, One Foot Long. 329 
Table showing the Weight of Boiler-plates One 

Foot Square and from ysth to an Inch Thick . 880 
Table showing the Weight of Square Bar-iron from 

4 an Inch to 6 Inches Square, One Foot Long . 330 
Table showing the Weight of Cast-iron Pipes, 

One Foot in Length, from } Inch to 14 Inches 

Thick, and from 3 to 24 Inches Diameter. . 8381 
Table showing the Tensile Strength of various 

Qualities of American and English Cast-iron . 332 
Table showing the Tensile Strength of various 


Qualities of American Wrought-iron. ‘ . 8383 
Table showing the Tensile Strength of various 

Qualities of English Maa: : ; . 834 

To PotisH Brass. ‘ iy Meee . 334 

CEMENT FOR MAKING STEAM-JOINTS i: REE OBO 

STEAM-DAMPERS . aa . ; . 339 


INDEX gery ; “ f : ; " . 341 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS, 


PAGE 
ADJUNCTS OF THE STEAM-BOILER . a ee . Le 
PLAIN CYLINDER BOILER é A ; , 4 28 
FLUE-BOILER . : : ; i - ; 3 29 
TuBULAR BorueR . : ; z ? ' 3 30 
DOUBLE-DECK BOILER . 3 ‘ . : 31 
DRoP-FLUE BOILER Lf : : ; : Ca ee 
LocoMoTIvE BoILER . : ; ¢ : < 33 
MARINE BoILERS . , ; ‘ zi “ 42, 46 
BorLER-HEADS , ‘ , : ; é ; ye DO 
STEAM-DOME . ; * ¥ ; é : : ne 
Mup-pRuM .. : . : 56 
VERTICAL TUBULAR BorLers é ‘ pets 68 
THe LATTA STEAM-BOILER . : ‘ 90, 91 
MooRHOUSE SAFETY SECTIONAL Borner d : 99 
WIEGAND SECTIONAL BOILER : ; : : : 112 
RoGErR’s AND BuAcK Borer. : : 2 : hes 
Piprce’s RoTary TUBULAR BOILER . ‘ ; paket: 
THE HARRISON SECTIONAL BOILER ; } : . 189 
THE SHAPLEY BOILER . ‘ . i : : . 154 
Tue PHLEGER BoILER . : , ; : ; . 159 
(GGAUGE-COCKS : : , ; E , - . 168 
STHAM-GAUGES ‘ : ; - . ; A . 170 
GuAss WATER-GAUGES £ 173 
Taw BABcocK AND WILCOX’s SECTIONAL STEAM-BOILER 175 
THE SAFETY-VALVE ‘ : : ; . 176 
WITTINGHAM’s TUBULOUS Boruer. N 189 
EXPLODED BoILER OF THE FERRY-BOAT “ WESTFIELD. ” 208 
 Exprniopep BorLerR oF THE ‘“ CHARLES WILLARD.” 222. 
- THE Root Borer . se l6 
DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING DEFECTS | IN STEAM-BOILERS . 231 
THE ALLEN BoILER ; ; : : F : 205 
RIVETED SEAMS. , F : } ; ; . 293 
CALKING ; : j , : : : . 804 
CHIMNEYS . é ; - . ; ; . 816 
AUTOMATIC STEAM-DAMPER : } 2 ; : $2009 











ADJUNCTS OF THE STEAM-BOiLER. 








USE AND ABUSE 


OF 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 


STEAM-BOILERS. 
STEAM-BOILER may be defined as a close 


vessel, in which steam is generated. It may 

assume an endless variety of forms, and can be con- 
structed of various materials. 

Since the introduction of steam as a motive power, 

a great variety of boilers has been designed, tried, 

and abandoned; while many others, having little or 

no merit as steam-generators, have their advocates, 


and are still continued in use. Under such circum- 
2* B 17 


18 USE AND ABUSE OF 


stances, it is not surprising that quite a variety of 
opinions are held on the subject. This difference of 
opinion relates not only to the form of boiler best 
adapted to supply the greatest quantity of steam with 
the least expenditure of fuel, but also to the dimen- 
sions or capacity suitable for an engine of a given 
number of horse-power; and while great improve- 
ments have been made in the manufacture of boiler 
materials within the past fifteen years, yet the 
number of inferior steam-boilers seems to increase 
rather than diminish. It would be difficult to 
assign any reasonable cause for this, except that, of 
late years, nearly the whole attention of theoretical 
and mechanical engineers has been directed to the 
improvement and perfection of the steam-engine, and 
practical engineers, following the example set by the 
leaders, devote their energies to the same object. 
This is to be regretted, as the construction and 
application of the steam-boiler, like the steam-engine, 
is deserving of the most thorough and scientific study, 
as on the basis of its employment rest some of the 
most important interests of civilization. Until quite 
recently, the idea was very generally entertained that 
the purely mechanical skill required to enable a 
person to join together pieces of metal, and thereby 
form a steam-tight and water-tight vessel of given 
dimension, to be used for the generation of steam ta 
work an engine, was all that was needed; experience 
has shown, however, that this is but a small portion 


THE STEAM-BOILER, 19 


of the knowledge that should be possessed by persons 
who turn their attention to the design and construc- 
tion of steam-boilers, as the knowledge wanted for 
this end is of a scientific as well as of a mechanical 
nature. 

As the boiler is the source of power, and the place 
where the power to be applied is first generated, and 
also the source from which the most dangerous con- 
sequences may arise from neglect or ignorance, it 
should attract the special attention of the designing 
and mechanical engineer, as it is well known that 
from the hour it is set to work, it is acted upon by 
destroying forces, more or less uncontrollable in their 
work of destruction. These forces may be distin- 
guished as chemical and mechanical. In most cases 
they operate independently, though they are fre- 
quently found acting conjointly in bringing about 
the destruction of the boiler, which will be more or 
less rapid according to circumstances of design, con- 
struction, quality of material, management, etc. 

The causes which most affect the integrity of 
boilers and limit their usefulness, are either inherent 
in the material or due to a want of skill in their 
construction and management; they may be enumer- 
ated as follows: 

First, inferior material; second, slag, sand, or 
cinders being rolled into the iron; third, want of 
lamination in the sheets; fourth, the overstretching 
of the fibre of the plate on one side and puckering on 


20 USE AND ABUSE OF 


the other in the process of rolling, to form the circle 
for the shell of a boiler; fifth, injuries done the plate 
in the process of punching; szath, damage induced 
by the use of the drift-pin; seventh, carelessness in 
rolling the sheets to form the shell, as a result of 
which the reams, instead of fitting each other exactly, 
have in many instances to be drawn together by 
bolts, which aggravates the evils of expansion and 
contraction when the boiler is in use; eighth, injury 
done the plates by a want of skill in the use of the 
hammer in the process of hand-riveting; ninth, 
damage done in the process of calking. 

Other causes of deterioration are unequal expan- 
sion and contraction, resulting from a want of skill 
in setting; grooving in the vicinity of the seams ; 
internal and external corrosion; blowing out the © 
boiler when under a high pressure and filling it again 
with cold water when hot; allowing the fire to burn 
too rapidly after starting, when the boiler is cold; 
ignorance of the use of the pick in the process of - 
scaling and cleaning ; incapacity of the safety-valve ; 
excessive firing; urging or taxing the boiler beyond 
its safe and easy working capacity; allowing the 
water to become low and thus causing undue expan- 
sion; deposits of scale accumulating on the parts 
exposed to the direct action of the fire, thereby 
burning or crystallizing the sheets or shell; wasting 
of the material by leakage and corrosion ; bad design 
and construction of the different parts; inferior 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 21 


workmanship and ignorance in the care and manage- 
ment. All these tend with unerring certainty to 
limit the age and safety of steam-boilers. 

On account of want of skill on the part of the 
designer and avarice on the part of the manufac- 
turer, or, perhaps, both reasons, boilers are some- 
times so constructed as to bring a riveted seam 
directly over the fire, the result of which is, that in 
consequence of one lap covering the other the water 
is prevented from getting to the one nearest the fire, 
for which reason the lap nearest the fire becomes 
hotter and expands to a much greater extent than 
any other part of the plate; and its constant un- 
~ equal expansion and contraction, as the boiler be- 
comes alternately hot and cold, inevitably results 
ina crack. Such blunders are aggravated by the 
scale and sediment being retained on the inside, 
between the heads of the rivets, which can never be 
properly removed in cleaning. 

The tendency of manufacturers to work boilers 
beyond their capacity, especially when business is 
driving, is too great in this country; and no doubt 
many boiler explosions may be attributed to this 
cause. Boilers are bought adapted to the wants of 
the manufactory at the time, but, as business in- 
creases, machinery is added to supply the demand 
for goods, until the engine is overtasked, the boiler 
strained and rendered positively dangerous. Then, 
again, it not unfrequently occurs that engines in 


22- USE AND ABUSE OF 


manufactories are taken out and replaced by those 
of increased power, while the boilers used with the 
old engine are retained in place, with more or less 
cleaning and patching, as the case may require. 
Now, it is evident to any practical mind that boilers 
constructed for a twenty-horse power engine are ill 
adapted to an engine of forty-horse power, more 
especially if those boilers have been used for a 
number of years. In order to supply sufficient 
steam for the new engine, with a cylinder of in- 
creased capacity, the boiler must be worked beyond 
its safe working pressure, consequently excessive 
heating and pressure greatly weaken it and endan- 
ger the lives of those employed in the vicinity. 

The danger and impracticability of using boilers 
with too limited steam-room may be explained thus: 
Suppose the entire steam-room in a boiler to be six 
cubic feet, and the contents of the cylinder which it 
supplies to be two cubic feet; then, at each stroke of 
the piston, one-third of all the steam in the boilers 
is discharged, and consequently one-third of the 
pressure on the surface of the water before that 
stroke is relieved; hence it will be seen that exces- 
sive fires must be kept up in order to generate steam 
of sufficiently high temperature and pressure to 
supply the demand. The result is that the boilers 
are strained and burned. Such economy in boiler: 
power is exceedingly expensive in fuel, to say 
nothing of the danger. Excessive firing distorts 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 23 


the fire-sheets, causing leakage, undue and unequal 
expansion and contraction, fractures, and the conse- 
quent evils arising from external corrosion. Exces- 
sive pressure arises generally from a desire on the 
part of the steam-user to make a boiler do double 
the work for which it was originally intended. A 
boiler that is constructed to work safely at from 
fifty to sixty pounds was never intended to run at 
eighty and ninety pounds; more especially if it had 
been in use for several years. Boilers deteriorated 
by age should have their pressure decreased, rather 
than increased. 

One ‘of the first things that should be done in 
manufacturing establishments would be to provide 
sufficient boiler-power, and, in order to do this, the 
work to be done ought to be accurately calculated 
and the engine and boilers adapted to the results of 
this calculation. Steam-users themselves are fre- 
quently to blame for the annoyances and dangers 
arising from unsafe boilers and those of insufficient 
capacity. For motives of false economy they are 
too easily swayed in favor of the cheaper article 
simply because it is cheap, when they should con- 
sider they are purchasing an article which, of almost 
all others, should be made in the most thorough 
manner and of the best material. In view of the 
fearful explosions that occur from time to time, 
every steam-user should secure for his use the best 
and the safest. The object of a few dollars, as 


24 USE AND ABUSE OF 


between the work of a good, responsible maker and 
that of an irresponsible one, should not for one 
moment be entertained. 

It is very bad policy for steam-users to advertise 
for estimates for steam-boilers, or to inform all the 
boiler-makers in the town or city that a boiler or 
boilers to supply steam for an engine of a certain 
size is needed, because in this way steam-users fre- 
quently find themselves in the hands of needy per- 
sons, who, in their anxiety to get an order, will 
sometimes ask less for a boiler than they can actu- 
ally make it for; consequently, they have to cheat 
in the material, in the workmanship, in the heating- 
surface, and in the fittings. As a result the boiler 
is not only a continual source of annoyance, but, in 
many instances, an actual source of danger. The 
most prudent course, and in fact the only one that 
may be expected to give satisfaction, is to contract 
with some responsible manufacturer that has an 
established reputation for honesty, capability, and 
fair dealing, and who will not allow himself to be 
brought in competition with irresponsible parties for 
the purpose of selling a boiler. 

There are thousands of boilers designed, con- 
structed, and set up in such a manner as to render it 
utterly impossible to examine, clean, or repair them. 
Generally in such cases, in consequence of imperfect 
circulation, the water is expelled from the surface of 
the iron at the points where the extreme heat from 


THE STEAM-BOILER 25 


the furnace impinges, and, as a result, the plates 
become overheated and bulge outward, which aggra- 
vates the evil, as the hollow formed by the bulge 
becomes a receptacle for scale and sediment. By 
continued overheating the parts become crystallized, 
and either crack or blister; this, if not attended to 
and remedied, will eventually end in the destruction 
of the boiler. Many boilers, to all appearance well 
made and of good material, give considerable trouble 
by leakage and fracture, owing to the severe strains 
of unequal expansion and contraction induced by 
their rigid construction, the result of a want of 
skill in the original design. 


DESIGN OF STEAM-BOILERS. 


it has become a general assertion on the part of 
writers on the steam-boiler that the most important 
object to be attained in its design and arrangement 
is thorough combustion of the fuel. This is only 
partially true, as there are other conditions equally 
important, among which are strength, durability, 
safety, economy, and adaptability to the particular 
circumstances under which it is to be used. How- 
ever complete the combustion may be, unless its 
products can be easily and rapidly transferred to 
the water, and unless the means of escape of the 
steam from the surfaces on which it is generated is 
easy and direct, the boiler will fail to produce satis- 

3 


26 USE AND ABUSE OF 


factory results either in point of durability or econ- 
omy of fuel. 

Strength means the power to sustain the internal 
pressure to which the boiler may be subjected in 
ordinary use, and under careful and intelligent man- 
agement. To secure durability, the material must 
be capable of resisting the chemical action of the 
minerals contained in the water, and the boiler 
ought to be designed so as to produce the least 
strain under the highest state of expansion to which 
it may be subjected,— be so constructed that all the 
parts will be subjected to an equal expansion, con- 
traction, push, pull and strain, and be intelligently 
and thoroughly cared for after being put in use. 
These objects, however, can only be obtained by the 
aid of a knowledge of the principles of mechanics, 
the strength and resistance of materials, the laws of 
expansion and contraction, the action of heat on 
bodies, ete. The economy of a steam-boiler is influ- 
enced by the following conditions: cost and quantity 
of the material, design, character of the workman- 
ship employed in its construction, space occupied, 
capability of the material to resist the chemical 
action of the ingredients contained in the water, the 
facilities it affords for the transmission of the heat 
from the furnace to the water, ete. The safety of 
any structure depends on the designer’s knowledge 
of the principles of mechanics, the resistance of 
materials, and the action of bodies as influenced by 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 27 


the elements 'to which they are exposed; and in the 
case of steam-boilers the safety depends on the judg- 
ment of the designer, the quality of the material, 
the character of the workmanship, and the skill 
employed in the management. Safety is said to be 
incompatible with economy, but this is undoubtedly 
a mistake, as an intelligent economy includes per- 
manence and seeks durability. Adaptability to the 
peculiar purposes for which they are to be used is 
one of the first objects to be sought for in the design 
and construction of any class of machines, vessels, or 
instruments, and it is undoubtedly this that gave 
rise to: the great variety of designs, forms, and 
modifications of steam-boilers in use at the present 
day, which are, with very few exceptions, the result 
of thought, study, investigation, and experiment. 


FORMS OF STEAM-BOILERS. 


According to the well-known law of kydrostatics, 
the pressure of steam in a close cylindrical vessel is 
‘exerted equally in all directions. In acting against 
the circumference of a cylinder, the pressure must 
therefore be regarded as radiating from the axis, 
and exerting a uniform tensional strain throughout 
the enclosing material. The cylindrical form, 
whether used for the shell of a boiler in which it 
is subjected to internal pressures, or for the flues 
through which the gases escape, or for tubes for the 


28 USE AND ABUSE OF 


circulation of the water, is the form best adapted 
for strength, permanence of shape, and cheapness of 
construction ; as flat surfaces, when exposed to high 
pressures, are positively dangerous, and whenever 
any departure from the circular form has been at- 
tempted, the result has been a failure. 





THE PLAIN CYLINDER BOILER. 


The plain cylinder boiler, shown on this page, is 
one of the earliest forms of steam-generators, as well 
as one of the most simple in construction, and, until 
quite recently, one of the most extensively used, but 
it is fast passing out of use, except in localities 
where economy of fuel is a secondary object. Its 
advantages were lightness, moderate first cost, and 
that it afforded better facilities for cleaning, repair- 
ing, or the renewal of any of its parts, than any 
other type of boiler. It also possessed peculiar 
advantages for rolling-mill and blast-furnace pur- 
poses, as it required little care, and was least danger- 
ous on account of the great body of water it con- 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 29 


tained. Its disadvantages were its great length, es- 
pecially in locations where space was of great value; 
its waste of fuel, arising from its limited heating 
surface; and the great body of useless water it con- 
tained, which had to be heated every time the boile» 
cooled. 





THE FLUE BOILER. 


The flue boiler, illustrated above, is a modifi- 
cation of the plain cylinder, and is characterized 
by an arrangement of one or more flues, generally 
two, though in some cases three or even five, running 
longitudinally within the shell through which the 
smoke and gases from the furnace pass to the 
chimney. With the same length and diameter, the 
heating surface is much greater than in the cylinder 
boiler, consequently it occupies less space, which is 
an object of great importance in many instances. 
But it has the disadvantages of extra weight, in- 
creased first cost, and that it is more difficult. to 

3%* 


30 USE AND ABUSE OF 


clean or repair. It also requires more care on 
account of the liability of the flues to become over- 
heated and collapse, in case the regular supply of 
water should be neglected. Like the cylinder, it is 
fast being replaced by other forms. 





THE TUBULAR BOILER. 


The tubular boiler, a cut of which may be seen on 
this page, is similar to the flue, except that, instead of 
large return flues, small tubes are used for the escape 
of the smoke and gases from the furnace to the 
chimney, and the transmission of the heat to the 
water. This boiler, with its various modifications, is 
probably in more general use for stationary, locomo- 
tive, and marine purposes, than any other form. Its 
introduction and employment as a steam-generator 
formed the basis for some of the most important im- 
provements heretofore made in railroad and marine 
steam-engineering. 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 31 


The tubular boiler possesses many advantages, in 
an economical point of view, over either the cylinder 
or flue, as it occupies less space, and requires less fuel 
to evaporate a certain quantity of water in a given 
time, and in consequence of the small diameters of 
the tubes, their liability to collapse is entirely obvi- 
ated. Its great disadvantages are that it is impossible 
to clean, and in many instances very difficult to re- 
pair. It requires equally as much attention as the 
flue boiler, and more than the plain cylinder. 











- THE DOUBLE-DECK BOILER. 


The double-deck boiler, a cut of which may be 
seen on this page, is a combination of the plain cylinder 
and tubular. It consists of a tubular and cylinder 
boiler, connected together by necks. This kind of 
boiler presents an immense amount of heating surface, 
as the heat and gases pass under the tubular boiler, 


32 USE AND ABUSE OF 


return through the tube, and re-return between the 
tubular and cylinder shells before passing into the 
chimney. It requires less attention than either the 
flue or tubular boiler, as in consequence of the tubu- 
lar section being continually full of water, and the 
upper section or cylinder forming the steam-dome, 
there is very little danger of the tubes becoming 
stripped. Though it requires considerable room 
between joints, it occupies less floor space than the 
tubular. Its disadvantages are its extra weight and 
first cost, and that it is very difficult to clean or 
repair. 



































THE DROP-FLUE BOILER. 


Boilers of this class are generally of a large diam- 
eter and are internally fired, the furnace being in the 
front end of the boiler, the smoke and heated gases 
escaping through the upper flues, returning through 
the middle flues, and escaping to the chimney through 


THE STEAM-BOILER, 33 


the lower tier. They are very efficient, and are fre- 
quently employed for marine purposes, but are liable 
to crack and become leaky, in consequence of the 
unequal expansion and contraction to which the 
sheets are exposed at the points where the flues 
return. 





THE LOCOMOTIVE BOILER. 


The locomotive boiler, a cut of which is shown 
on this page, though not in very general use for 
stationary purposes, when well proportioned for its 
work, is very economical, as it occupies but little 
space, presents an immense amount of heating sur- 
face, steams very rapidly, and, when well constructed, 
is compact and powerful. This is owing to the fact 
that the fuel is burned in a metallic fire-box, sur- 
rounded by a water-space which absorbs the heat 
that would otherwise be lost in heating the walls of 

C 


84 USE AND ABUSE OF 


a brick furnace, and that the space between tlie 
grate-bars and crown-sheet is higher than could be 
obtained in any other design or form of boiler. This 
is very favorable to combustion. Another advantage 
is, that the tubes in such boilers are generally of 
small diameter and more numerous, which of itself 
is a great advantage, as small boiler-tubes are 
capable of producing more satisfactory results than 
large ones, as they not only increase the amount of 
heating surface, but at the same time can be made 
of thiyner material. This admits of the heat being 
conducted more rapidly to the water than if they 
were large and necessarily thicker. ; 


FIRE-BOX BOILERS. 


Fire-box boilers are that class of boilers in which 
the fuel is consumed in a metal instead of a brick 
furnace. It includes all locomotives, nearly all 
marine, and a great many boilers used for stationzry 
purposes; in fact, all internally-fired boilers may be 
said to be fire-box boilers. A wide difference of 
opinion among engineers exists in regard to the 
economy of fire-box boilers; as, while all agree that 
the fire-box increases the weight and first cost, some 
claim that more water can be evaporated to each 
pound of coal in a fire-box boiler than can be done 
in a brick furnace, as, in consequence of a more ex- 
tended metallic surface to absorb the heat from the 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 85 


fuel, more is utilized, and, consequently, less lost: 
while, on the other hand, it is asserted that the fire- 
box, though possessing advantages in point of con- 
venience, has none in point of economy, as, if the 
fire-box was cut away from any boiler, and the 
shell set up in brick, it would evaporate as many 
pounds of water to a pound of coal as when it was 
connected with the fire-box. Besides, the fire-box is 
likely to corrode, which induces leakage and neces- 
sitates repairs. 


TUBULOUS BOILERS. 


This class of boilers is in very extensive use as 
steam generators, and, unlike the tubular, they have 
no shell. In the tubular boiler the tubes serve to 
convey the flame and heated gases from the fire, and 
the expansive force of the steam ‘is controlled by the 
shell as well as by the tubes, the former sustaining 
an internal pressure, which has a tendency to rupture 
it, while the external pressure on the tubes has the 
effect of causing them to flatten and collapse. In the 
tubulous boiler, on the other hand, there is no shell, 
properly so called, and the tubes being filled with hot 
water and steam sustain an internal pressure only, 
rendering them safer, particularly if the tubes be of 
small diameter, as it is well known that a tube of a 
moderate thickness of metal is capable of withstand- 
ing with safety a pressure which would utterly de- 
stroy a boiler of ordinary size. 


MILIARITY with Steam Machinery, 

more especially with Boilers, is apt to 
beget a confidence in the ignorant which is 
not founded on a knowledge of the dangers 
by which they are continually surrounded ; 
while contact with Steam, and a thorough 
elementary knowledge of its constituents, 
theory, and action, only incline the intelli- 
sent Engineer and Fireman to be more cau- 
tious and energetic in the discharge of rats 


duties. 
36 


THE STEAM-BOILER. SF 


SIZE OF BOILERS. 


It is generally understood that the larger a steam- 
boiler is for the work to be done the more economi- 
cal it will be of fuel, because the combustion is 
slower, and consequently more perfect, and the 
flames and smoke are thus in contact with the 
heated surface a longer time and therefore impart 
more of their heat to the water, and that—the water 
capacity of a large boiler being greater than that 
of a smali one—there is more hot water stored up 
for use when the maximum power of the engines 
must he exercised, for which reason the fire need 
not be forced so much as it would be if it were 
necessary to generate all the steam consumed at 
such times as fast as it is used. But it must not be 
inferred from this that boilers entirely too large for 
the services they have to perform are economical, as 
an extra large boiler contains a great body of water 
and requires an extra quantity of fuel to get up 
steam every time it is allowed to cool down. 

[t is not unusual to find manufacturers of steam- 
boilers recommending a thirty-, or even a forty-horse 
power boiler for the purpose of supplying steam to 
a twenty-horse power engine. This is very doubtful 
economy, as an extra diameter.and length of boiler 
necessitates extra strength of material, which in- 
duces extra weight and first cost, and an increased 
gonsumption of fuel. A. steam-boiler, like any other 

4 


38 USE AND ABUSE OF 


machine, should be proportioned to the purposes for 
which it is intended, and its application to that 
particular purpose should be the result of mature 
deliberation, and be based upon sound calculation, 
and not on custom, hearsay, or any other vagaries 
that may be popular regarding such things. 

It is also quite common for small boilers to be 
replaced with large ones for the purpose of furnish- 
ing an extra quantity of steam, while, perhaps, the 
same sized grate-bars, same area of flue, and same 
chimney are used. Such arrangements are generally 
influenced either by ignorance or avarice, or perhaps 
by both, and are sure to give rise to dissatisfaction 
between the boiler-maker and purchaser. Before 
purchasing a boiler, it is necessary to know the 
maximum quantity of steam that will be needed, 
the quality of the fuel, and the character of the 
draft, etc. These three things intelligently con- 
sidered and decided upon, the heating and grate 
surface can be proportioned accordingly, after which, 
if the management be careful and intelligent, there 
can be no reason why the boiler should not give 
satisfaction. 


SECTIONAL STEAM-BOILERS, 


Sectional boilers consist, essentially, of a system 
of tubes, so arranged that a continuous circulation 
of the water is maintained through the tubes from 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 39 


the mechanical action arising from some portions of 
the tubes being maintained at a higher temperature 
than others, the heated and lighter water ascending 
and the cooler and heavier water descending. The 
shell is dispensed with, and the heat applied directly 
by both radiation and contact to the exterior sur- 
faces of the tubes. The idea of sectional steam- 
boilers is claimed to have originated with Jacob 
Perkins, about the year 1830, and since that time 
a great variety of designs and constructions of 
that class of steam-generators has been tried, and 
nearly all abandoned. This arose partly from a 
want of knowledge of the requirements of a steam- 
boiler on the part of their designers, a want of skill 
in their construction, as well as from a want of 
proper tools for their adjustment. 

The claim which opened the way for the introduc- 
tion of sectional boilers, and one on which their 
inventors and advocates have laid so much stress, 
namely, that they were non-explosive, and that a 
tube, or number of tubes, or even a section, might 
explode and do but trifling damage, has not held 
good, at least in all cases, as the accidents at Hoopes 
& Townsend’s and at Troth & Gordon’s, in Phila- 
delphia, show, several men having lost their lives in 
both eases; in one, by the explosion of a section, and 
in the other by the explosion of the whole boiler. 
Why, in the face of these facts, such boilers should 
claim to be non-explosive, or safer than ordinary 


40 USE AND ABUSE OF 


or wrought-iron boilers, is difficult to see. In their 
construction large quantities of cast-iron are em- 
ployed, and, to be of equal strength with the 
wrought-iron, it must of necessity be a great deal 
thicker. Now, as it is well known that the thin 
part of steam-boilers expands more rapidly than 
the thick, and that the limit of the expansion of the 
two metals is different, it is plain that some parts of 
sectional boilers must be subjected to an enormous 
strain, while the strain on other parts will be only 
that due to the pressure. 

Most sectional boilers have attached to them a 
wrought-iron steam-drum, which, except for its 
smaller diameter, possesses all the dangers of the 
ordinary wrought-iron boiler; and if this drum is 
constructed of iron of thinner gauge, or is imperfectly 
made, the liability to accidents is the same as in the 
case of the wrought-iron boiler. Besides, most sec- 
tional boilers are difficult, if not impossible, to clean ; 
their first cost is more than that of the ordinary 
cylinder, flue, or tubular, while their evaporative 
powers are, with very few exceptions, less, and it is 
generally admitted that they are slow steamers. 
Though they may occupy less ground space than the 
ordinary form of steam-boilers, they generally require 
more room between floor and ceiling, while nothing 
is known of their durability or longevity. Many of 
the sectional boilers now in use embody in their 
designs nearly all the bad points of the old-fashioned 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 41 


wrought-iron boilers, without embracing any of the 
good ones. 

Another great disadvantage inherent in nearly all 
sectional boilers, and one which entails a good deal 
of annoyance, and incurs a certain amount of danger, 
is the great variation in pressure and rapid fluctua- 
tion in the water level, whenever they are worked up 
to their full capacity. That any of this class of 
boilers now in use will be able to supersede (as was 
once claimed by their inventors) the ordinary forms 
of wrought-iron cylindrical boilers, seems very im- 
probable; nor is it at all likely that they will ever 
be able, in point of durability, efficiency, or economy, 
to successfully compete with them ; still, some recent 
forms of sectional steam-boilers are creating very 
favorable impressions. 


MARINE BOILERS. 


There is now, as there always has been, a great 
diversity of opinion among engineers in regard to the 
true principles upon which to design a marine boiler 
which will produce the greatest effect with the least 
stowage, first cost, subsequent labor, and fuel. Ex- 
perience has shown that the best that can be done, 
is to determine which of these considerations should 
have the least weight, and as a guide, look to practice 
rather than any assumed theoretical principles. For 


land purposes, there is hardly any limit to the size 
4* 


USE AND ABUSE OF 


42 


iy 


Li 








PATAAIOONNTY 


TOM eo — 


‘Y3TIOG YVINEGAL ANIGVW 






















































































THE STEAM-BOILER. 43 


or weight of a boiler except first cost. It is easy, 
therefore, to design and construct one with sufficient 
heating surface, water-space, and steam-room. But 
in designing a marine boiler the case is quite different, 
as the designer is restricted both in room and weight ; 
for if the vessel be occupied or loaded down with 
boilers, it detracts from the room and capacity that 
should be devoted to other purposes. 

Marine boilers are of necessity either flue or tubu- 
lar, since the flame must be within the shell of the 
boiler; but in this arrangement they are almost as 
various as the makers. The large flue is preferable 
because less liable to choke with soot, ashes, cinders. 
or salt which may come from leakage. But in situ- 
ations which restrict length, height, and width of 
boiler, the only method of producing in a flue boiler 
such extent of fire surface as will extract all the heat 
capable of being used to advantage in generating 
steam, is to reduce the size and multiply the number 
of flues. The most ordinary forms of marine boilers 
are the horizontal and vertical; and, so far as effi- 
ciency is concerned, there does not appear to be any 
great difference between them, where equal surfaces 
are presented to the action of the fire; but there are 
many things, particularly in sea-going steamers, to 
be considered, and for them that boiler is the best 
which gives equal effect, occupies least space, and 
affords the best facilities for cleaning and repairs. 

A certain proportion between the area of the grate 


44 USE AND ABUSE OF 


and the total heating surface has been found pro- 
ductive of the best results, with a given description 
of fuel; but any alteration in the quality of the fuel 
used will be found to affect this result materially. 
Consequently, no general rule can be laid down for 
marine boilers that will answer for all kinds of fuel ; 
nor is it at all likely that any one form will ever 
fulfil all the varied conditions under which such 
boilers may be placed. A consideration of great 
importance in the construction of marine boilers. is 
their capacity to contain water and steam. ‘This, of 
course, depends upon the size of the boiler and the 
proportion of space occupied by flues or tubes, as, if 
the space within it be nearly filled with flues, there 
can be but little room left for water. 

In fixing on the proper capacity of the water-space 
of a marine boiler, there are not such peculiar diffi- 
culties as in the case of the steam-chamber, and any 
one at.a first view would say, as many do without suf- 
ficient consideration, that there cannot be too little 
water, provided the boiler is filled to the proper 
height; for it is quite obvious the smaller the quan- 
tity of water the less will be the expenditure of the 
fuel during the first getting up of the steam after 
each stoppage of the engine. It is, however, not the 
“getting up” the steam, but the keeping it up, that 
ought to be considered of most consequence. It isa 
prevailing opinion that, after steam is once got up, 
there is no material difference between keeping a 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 48 


large quantity of water boiling and a small quantity, 
provided the escape of heat is prevented by sufhi- 
ciently clothing the boiler with non-conducting sub- 
stances; but on this subject engineers differ. Why 

ractical men should differ in opinion on so plain a 
matter is unaccountable. 

The quantity of water carried must exceed that 
of the evaporation in a given time, in order that the 
supply of feed-water may not greatly reduce the 
temperature of the water in the boiler and check the 
formation of steam. There must in all cases bea 
sufficient height of water in the boiler to prevent the 
flues or crown-sheet from becoming bare in case the 
supply of feed-water be neglected or the vessel 
pitches in a rough sea. When marine boilers are so 
constructed that steam cannot be taken off above the 
level of the water without danger of working water 
into the steam-cylinder, it becomes necessary to 
resort to the expedient of attaching a steam-dome to 
the boiler. This steam-dome is constructed either 
inside or around the smoke-pipe, and, though not 
adding much to the cubic capacity of the steam-room, 
has the effect of superheating the steam, or imparting 
to it an extra heat, which greatly increases its ex- 
pansive force, and renders it less liable to condense in 
the passages between the boiler and the cylinder. 





THE STEAM-BOILER. 47 


TABLE 
SHOWING THE NUMBER OF SQUARE FEET OF HEATING SUR- 
FACE TO ONE SQUARE FOOT OF GRATE SURFACE IN THE 
BOILERS OF NOTED OCEAN, RIVER, AND FERRY-BOAT 
STEAMERS. 


| Number of sq. 
feet of heat- 





NAME OF STEAMER. ten eye 
of grate sur- 
face. 

| Powhatan, Wee Nate. teas ean een es ak 22.3 
Susquehannd, 68 ee. nce.coccedeane Bip Pea 25. 
Mississippi, iy By eS oS Brera ey rier 18.6 
San Jacinto, Bek iets oan 5 ni'y San ees 27. 
Saranac, DE REA coos So dete nicatiiee ai Stamens aa 27.25 
Princeton, TOU aces an sean eatin 22. 
Michigan, RPE Mien dre aha ou ose Rea 19.75 
Vixen, CRE ane wetneeia ee 16. 
Massachusetts, “ “ ...... Ws gtaeeis ts 33.6 
Georgia, Merchant Steamer............. 22.25 
Washington, ie <6) SRM 23.5 
United States, ty 5 aR Rces., 21.9 
Northerner, re 4, tee Sage aig on 24.9 
Falcon, 3 Aenea ce het 20.8 
Philadelphia, ¢ ee th ov eae 21. 
Republic, My air 3 reece aura: | 
Ohio a ene ek eee 22.25 
Hermann, We Nh fee 30.6 
Cherokee, o Sr ea daectcege tec): hy ick 
Union, ve sige + pe 66.4 
Constitution, oe Ws eee Vesey 34.5 
Golden Gate, od ee ik ee 32.8 
Monumental City, “ CSET aah Ab an 31.4 
El Dorado, he ER Maen ya sas 26.8 
City of Pittsburg, + Oe tabae's sollaeiy gO 
Pioneer, Sg ge Ae ee ames 2S 
Albatross, °) Es veiecehopi. OeOeO 
Osprey, Spates hecsesven: fe ae4. 
Humboldt, a eR bert. can tive beet 19.6 


Franklin, Ny sti Leagbeien 28.4 








48 USE AND ABUSE, ETO, 


TA BL E..— Continued. 





| Number of sq. 











feet of heat- 
NAME OF STEAMER. Pel Cheer 
of grate sur- 
face. 
Arctic, Merchant Steamer............-s000- 33.25 
| Baltic, am AN NAAN tae oe age ee 33.25 
Pacific, cs Att Wenteey Wasa Wie sees 33.25 
Atlantic, x9 CHE ascGuach oonaewss 33.25 
May Flower, 4 Ce eahawe hen bin cane 31.71 
Empire State, “ eee eA eye tee 24.5 
America, x TOPOMY Meine. Soins se Soeeeee a 32.25 
Knoxville, i Tit thusasidew en tputenss 63.1 
North America, River Steamer..........sscseeee 22.3 
South America, iy Scat abs nl-s «ntewesteg eee 24.9 
Oregon, = PeiE it iaaednicas ekeameret 31.3 
Alida, Pe Mar tsanevae tenane cee 27.9 
Niagara, Ny BAT Pama Are ir, Aerts 27. 
Joseph Belknap, “ Huse: ea'slbaiew's eee epeh ai 27.9 
Mountaineer, a Ed disse chloe aiee SeaeeeS 32. 
New World, “ rt Ve Ns hie ae 25.17 
Traveller, f rah Wain WADE een cae eee 21.3 
Isaac Newton, . Ae AK ogelan ld tian hens ee 28.2 
Roger Williams, “ PAR Mtvoneniewapae seek 19.2 
Thomas Powell, “ re ts she ktet teauer pate 25.5 
Armenia, i ite Ee ace reer eed 24.5 
America, ¥ ph eae ey red PE 26. 
Bay State, e nM eset nescaee wads 29.3 
Empire State, ik Ay? yA Ae pene 25. 
Baltimore, ¥ ewimeeat catise subaeess 42.37 
J. M. White, Western river Steamer............ 26. 
Rescue, Shera ch tek ade ynoneheWissabarteet 28. 
Anglo-Saxon, “ 
Merchant, Ferry-boat 
Seneca, Hg 
Onalaska, ‘i 
John Fitch, 4: 








A MOPAR biscestucnsaciencssoetees steer eee 





We Y regard steam as an incomprehen- 
sible mystery ; and although they may 
employ tt as a power to accomplish work, 
know little of its character or capabilities. 
Steam may be managed .by common sense 
rules as well as any other power; but if the 
laws which regulate its use are violated, it 
reports itself, and often in louder tones. than 
ts pleasant. | 
5 D 49 


50 USE AND ABUSE OF 


BOILER-HEADS. 





Flat Head turned Outward, 


There are two forms of boiler-heads in general 
use, and four ways in which they are secured to the 
shell of the boiler. These are — first, the flat head 
turned outward; second, the flat head turned in- © 
ward; third, the arched head turned outward; 
fourth, the arched head turned inward. Consider- 
ing the two facts, first, that, with a given amount of 
material, arched forms are stronger than flat ones, 
and, second, that cast-irou resists compressive better 
than tensile strains, it plainly appears that the first 
plan mentioned above is the weakest, and the fourth 
plan the strongest, mode in which a cast-iron head 
can be used. It is also true that either form of head 
is stronger when turned inward than outward. The 
correctness of these statements, in so far as the 
strength of the head is concerned, cannot be gain- 
said; but there are other considerations besides 
strength which determine the form of boiler-heads. 

The first to be considered is the arched head 
turned inward; the strongest plan. It will be 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 51 


noticed that if the head is made of uniform thick- 
ness, with a curve at the spring-line of the arch, to 
secure a sound casting between the head and the 
sheet, an acute angular space is left, liable to fill up 
with sediment and harden into scale by the action 





Arched Head turned Inward, 


of the fire, which is usually severe at this part of the 
boiler. Experience has shown that the boiler-plates 
at this point have corroded and burnt out very 
rapidly with the heads made and inserted in this 
manner, though the action of the sediment may be 
prevented by squaring up the head to a right angle 
with the sheet; but this renders the plate liable to 
over-heating, from the excessive quantity of cast-iron 
in contact with it just over the fire. This latter 
difficulty may, to a certain extent, be overcome by 
setting the boiler far enough ahead in the front to 
protect the mass of iron in the head from the severe 
action of the fire. There are other objections to 
inserting heads in this manner, such as loss of 
capacity, etc., resulting from the great space occu- 


WAIVERSITY OF (ELINGES 





52 USE AND ABUSE OF 


pied by the head in the shell. Now, by adding one- 
fourth more metal, and distributing it evenly in 
thickness all over, and giving the head an arched 
form, it can be turned outward, possess all the re- 
quirements of strength needed for safety, and avoid 
the objectionable features of the concave head. 

The flat head turned outward possesses more 
objectionable features than any other form, as it is 
the worst disposition which can be made of metal to 
withstand internal elastic pressure, as the tendency 
of the force within a boiler is to cause the flat end 





Arched Head turned Qutward. 


to bulge outward, and assume the spherical form. 
This brings a severe strain upon the point of least 
resistance, as shown in the cut on page 90, and also 
upon the rivets which join the head to the shell. 
Whether boiler-heads be turned inward or outward, 
it is evident that they must possess strength equal at 
least to that of the metal of the sheet across the 
transverse rows of rivet-holes, as the section of metal, 
after punching, is the measure of strength in any 
boiler without stays. While we may assume that 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 53 


the head loses the same amount of metal by the 
rivet-holes, proportional to its thickness, as the sheet 
does to which it is secured, whatever be the size or 
number of rivets, we have but to consider, in the 
comparison of strength, the ratio of thickness of 
head and sheet and the tensile strength of each 
material. Wrought-iron heads of the flat, arched, 
and egg-shaped forms are now very generally used, 
on account of their great tensile strength, lightness, 
and the facilities they afford for bracing; more par- 
ticularly in boilers of a large diameter. 








-—f ee ae eee eee 


| SE cas SS 


STEAM-DOMES. 


The advantages claimed to be derived from the 
steam-dome are, that it acts as a steam reservoir and 


also an anti-primer, in consequence of being further 
5* 


54 USE AND ABUSE OF 


removed from the water than any other part of the 
boiler, which is true to a certain extent; but, as re- 
gards its advantages as a steam reservoir, it can 
easily be shown that an ordinary sized steam-dome 
adds very little to the steam-room of a boiler, For 
instance, a boiler 48 inches in diameter and 20 feet 
long would contain 251 cubic feet of space; if we 
take three-fourths of that as water-space, we will 
have 1éft about 63 cubic feet for steam-room. Now 
suppose we take a steam-dome 24 inches in diameter 
and 2 feet high, we gain only 6 cubic feet of space, 
the steam from which would fill the cylinder of an 
engine 12 inches in diameter and 24-inch stroke five 
times, even if worked expansively. 

Now, with respect to its advantages as an anti- 
primer, it appears to be taken for granted that the 
higher the point at which the steam is taken from 
the boiler, the drier it is likely to be; but the cool- 
ing effect on the steam, by domes of large diameter 
exposed to the atmosphere, seems to be entirely lost 
sight of, as it is well known that when an engine is 
at work, the steam rushes into and through the dome 
with great velocity, and in its passage is liable not 
only to take with it a great quantity of water, but 
have its temperature lowered by coming in contact 
with so much surface exposed to the action of the 
atmosphere. It frequently happens that the steam 
taken from a dome is more wet than that in any 
other part of the boiler. 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 339) 


The reservoir of power in a boiler is not so 
much in the steam as in the heated water. With a 
working pressure of 60 pounds, each cubic foot of 
steam in the boiler will produce only 4.65 cubic feet 
of steam, at atmospheric pressure; but 1 cubic foot 
of water in the boiler will produce nearly 35 times 
that amount, as at 60 pounds pressure the tempera- 
ture of the water is 307.5°, or 95.5° above the boil- 
iug-point, at atmospheric pressure; and, as every 
degree of heat added to water already at 212° may 
be taken as competent to generate 1.7 cubic feet of 
steam, 95.5° will produce 162.35° cubic feet, or 
nearly 35 times as much as 1 cubic foot of steam, 
at 60 pounds pressure. It will be seen from the 
above that, notwithstanding the general opinion that 
the presence of a steam-dome is essential for obtain- 
ing dry steam and as a remedy for priming, it should 
be regarded as not only a useless and expensive 
appendage to a boiler, but a source of real weakness 
and danger; the practice of cutting a dome-hole in 
the shell of a boiler, without providing for the 
weakening of the plate by some other means, should 
be looked upon as a very mischievous and danger- 
ous practice. 

When it becomes necessary to have a dome, as 
in case of limited steam-room, or where the arrange- 
ment of the tubes or flues is such as to make it 
necessary to carry the water high in the boiler, the 
hole in the plate under the dome should not be cut 


56 USE AND ABUSE OF 


larger than is sufficient to allow a free escape of the | 
steam from the boiler to the dome, or to admit of a 
convenient adjustment of the dome-braces. In most 
marine boilers the steam-dome is constructed either 
inside or around the smoke-pipe, and, though not 
adding much to the cubic capacity of the steam- 
room, has the effect of superheating the steam, or 
imparting to it an extra heat, which greatly increases 
its expansive force, and renders it less liable to 
condense in the passages between the boiler and the 


cylinder. 























= 











0200 


lb 00000 
Lil = 


0 























coo 
arpne °° o dt 


MUD-DRUMS. 


As will be seen by the above cut, the mu 
drum is a small cylindrical vessel, ordinarily about 
twenty-four inches in diameter, attached to the under 
side of a steam-boiler for the purpose of receiving 
the feed-water before it enters the boiler, and collect- 
ing and retaining the mud or other impurities that 
may be contained in the water; and also for the 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 57 


purpose of imparting heat to the feed-water before 
entering the boiler. When we consider the short 
life of the mud-drum, which rarely exceeds six or 
seven years, and also the expense of removing it and 
replacing it with a new one, its use in any case 
becomes a question of doubtful economy. 

Steam-users and engineers for a long time enter- 
tained the belief that mud-drums were beneficial, 
inasmuch as they imparted extra heat to the feed- 
water, and retained the mud that would otherwise 
have been carried into the boiler. Experience, 
however, has shown this to be a grave error, as mud- 
drums impart very little heat to the feed-water, and 
retain nothing but the earthy matter which is held 
in suspension in the water, while all the destructive 
carbonates that are held in solution are carried into 
the boiler. A good deal has been said and written, 
and many theories advanced, to account for the pit- 
ting or honey-combing of mud-drums, but the mys- 
terious manner in which it occurs, and its peeuliar 
character, have not as yet been fully explained, as 
scientific men are still unable to assign even a plausi- 
ble cause. The most probable cause for this singu- 
lar pitting or rotting away might be assigned to the 
location of the drum, as it receives, on the upper 
side, nearly all the heat imparted to it, and has not 
enough on the lower side to keep the iron perfectly 
dry, and to prevent the rusting of the plates and 
rivet-heads. 


58 USE AND ABUSE OF 


WATER-SPACE AND STEAM-ROOM IN STEAM. 
BOILERS. 


The cubic contents of a steam-boiler may be 
divided into two parts, namely, that occupied by the 
water, and that which is occupied by the steam, each 
of which has, of necessity, a very narrow limit of 
variation, though they differ very materially for dif- 
ferent boilers. In the case of a locomotive, it is 
almost impossible to fix any ratio whatever between 
the water-space and steam-room, since the former, of 
necessity, is limited; and every additional row of . 
tubes to increase the heating surface reduces the 
area of the water-space. So with the steam-room, 
to secure dryness of steam and steadiness of action 
large space is desirable; but it is hmited by the same 
considerations that restrict the water-space. 

According to Bourne and Armstrong, the water- 
space should be three-fourths, and the steam-room 
one-fourth, the whole internal capacity of the boiler. 
For the boilers of stationary engines, these proportions 
give very satisfactory results ; and for locomotive and 
marine boilers two-thirds water-space and one-third 
steam-room are the proper proportions. In the case 
of the marine boiler, it is, of course, necessary to have 
sufficient water to keep the flues and crown-sheets 
from becoming bare when the vessel is pitching in a 
rough sea. So also in the case of the locomotive, it 
is necessary to have sufficient water to cover all the ~ 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 59 


parts exposed to the direct action of the fire when 
the engine is ascending or descending steep grades. 
The proportions of steam-room for all boilers are 
based on the idea that a certain reserve of steam is 
desirable in proportion to the amount of water evap- 
orated per hour, and that that reserve should never 
in any case be less than twelve times the capacity 
of the cylinder. 


DIAMETER AND LENGTH OF STEAM-BOILERS 
AND THICKNESS OF BOILER-PLATE. 


The diameter of steam-boilers must be determined 
_by the ends which they are desired to meet, and the 
objects for which they are employed; also the tensile 
strength of the material, and the internal pressure to 
which they are to be subjected. For the same in- 
ternal pressure and the same material, the thickness 
for different diameters must: be proportional to the 
diameters of the boiler; for extra pressures, either 
the diameter must be decreased, or the thickness of 
the material increased, which also increases the 
weight. As the thickness of boiler material for or- 
dinary high-pressure. use must range from three-six- 
teenths to seven-sixteenths of an inch — inasmuch as 
any material thinner than the former can hardly be 
calked, and if thicker than the latter is difficult to 
rivet, except with machinery — the extreme limit to 
the diameters of boilers for high-pressure steam must 


60 USE AND ABUSE OF 


be about sixty inches. The boilers of low-pressure 
engines are frequently made from one hundred to 
one hundred and twenty inches in diameter, but they 
are intended to sustain a pressure of only about 
twenty pounds to the square inch. 

Length of Boilers.— The strength of a boiler to 
resist internal pressure is not affected by its length, 
except what is due to the stress or sag, induced by 
the weight of the boiler itself. Boilers may be viewed 
as having certain relations to girders in principle.! 
Girders generally have their two ends resting on two 
points of support, and the load is either located at 
fixed distances from the props, or dispersed over the 
whole surface as in the case of the steam-boiler. 
But, unlike the girder, the boiler is exposed to high 
temperatures, and to deteriorations induced by the 
extreme limits of expansion and contraction, which 
have a tendency to cause it to bend or sag in the 
middle. It has been demonstrated by practical ex- 
periment and observation, both in this country and 
in England, that there is nothing to be gained by the 
use of long boilers, and that the extreme length of 
plain cylinder boilers should never exceed seven 
times their diameter; of flue boilers, six times; of 
a tubular and double-deck, five times; and of loco- 
motive boilers, from three to four times their respec- 
tive diameters. 

Thickness of Boiler Materials.— There appears 
to be a wide difference of opinion among engineers 


HE STEAM-BOILER. 61. 


as to the thickness of the material capable of pro- 
ducing the most satisfactory results in an economical 
point of view within the bounds of safety. It is 
generally admitted that the thicker the boiler iron 
and the poorer its conducting qualities, the greater 
will be the loss of heat; and that the thinner the 
material, provided it possesses sufficient strength and 
good conducting properties, the less resistance is 
offered to the passage of the heat from the furnace 
to the water. Boilers made of a superior quality of 
iron may be thinner and lighter, and consequently 
more economical as to first cost; but it is claimed, on 
the other hand, that there is no difference in point 
of economy between thick and thin plates except in 
first cost, provided that they are of the same quality ; 
as, while it requires less fuel to raise the temperature 
of the water to the boiling-point in the thin boiler 
than it will in the thick one, the latter will generate 
more steam with a given quantity of fuel in a given 
time than the former. 


EVAPORATION IN STEAM-BOILERS. 


As the particles of water rise heated from the 
bottom of the boiler, other particles necessarily sub- 
side into their places; and it is a point of consider- 
able importance to ascertain the direction in which 
the currents approach the plate to receive heat. <A 


particle of water cannot leave the heated plate until. 
6 


2 USE AND ABUSE OF 


there is another particle at hand to occupy its posi- 
tion ; therefore, unless a due succession in the parti- 
cles is provided for, the plate cannot get rid of its 
heat, and the proper formation of steam is prevented. 
It may be stated, as a general theory, that vaporiza- 
tion does not depend on the quantity of heat applied 
to the plate, but on the quantity of heat abstracted 
from it by the particles of water as they successively 
take their places upon that part to which the fire is. 
applied. It will follow, as a necessary deduction 
from this fact, that the amount of vaporization of 
steam generated will depend upon the quickness 
with which cold atoms of water gain access to the 
heated portions of the vessels, while the hotter atoms 
are driven off. An engineer, therefore, will give a 
careful consideration to the means of promoting that. 
‘access of the water to one side of the plate and-of 
heat to the other. 

Experiments and facts tend to show that every 
facility should be provided for enabling steam to 
make its exit from the bottom of the boiler; that 
ample space should be given at the ends or sides of 
the boiler for the circulation of the large body of 
water which, having parted with its steam, is now 
again returning to the heated plates at the bottom. 
It is highly desirable that the water should be made 
to circulate around the sides of the boiler; because, 
as water almost invariably contains portions of lime 
and other earthy salts, this sediment will be deposited 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 63 


on those portions of the boiler where they can do 
little harm, and away from the tubes, which would 
be much injured by incrustations. This observation, 
of course, applies only to those boilers where the fire 
is located in the middle, or in which it passes 
through tubes, and where no excessive heat is likely 
to touch the parts incrusted. It has been proved, 
beyond doubt, that no boiler can be injured by heat 
as long as its plates are in contact with water; these 
points have been settled by a great variety of experi- 
ments. 


EVAPORATIVE EFFICIENCY OF STEAM- 
BOILERS. 


The evaporative efficiency of a square foot of 
heating surface varies in different classes of boilers, 
as well as in the same boiler, under different condi- 
tions; in consequence of this, it is difficult to deter- 
mine the precise area of heating surface necessary 
for the production of a given amount of steam in a 
given time. Fora given description of boiler, it is 
evident that the evaporative efficiency will depend 
upon the ratio between the quantity of coal con- 
sumed and the extent of heating surface, the con- 
ducting qualities of the material, the difference in 
temperature between the fuel in the furnace and the 
water in the boiler, the quality of the fuel and the 
manner in which it is burned, the thorough mixture 


64 USE AND ABUSE OF 


of the products of combustion, and the time the 
heated gases are allowed to remain in contact with 
the heating surface of the boiler; as the greater 
their velocity, the less time they have to impart 
their heat to the plates or tubes where the length 
of the surface is constant. 

When the heating surface consists chiefly of tubes, 
as in the locomotive type of boiler, the collective 
area of the tubes may be diminished without de- 
creasing the extent of heating surface, since the 
sectional area varies as the square of the diameter, 
whilst the surface measured by the circumference 
diminishes simply as the diameter. With the gases 
passing at the same velocity through two tubes, 
whose diameters are as 1:2, the latter will be tra- 
versed, in a given time, by four times the quantity of 
gases, and will have only twice the surface to absorb 
the heat. Therefore, to obtain the same evaporative 
economy as in the small tube, we must double the 
length of the larger; or, generally speaking, the 
proportion between diameter and length of tube is 
constant for the same evaporative efficiency. 

The velocity through a tube may be increased 
either by reducing its area,—the total quantity of 
gas passing through remaining constant,— or by in- 
creasing their draught, thereby so causing a greater 
amount of gas to pass through in a given time, the © 
area of the tube remaining unaltered. When an 
increased quantity of gases, of the same density, 


fHE STEAM-BOILER. 65 


passes through a tube in a given time, although there 
will be a greater absorption of heat, there will still 
be a loss by the increased amount of heat remaining 
in the escaping gases; and in order to preserve the 
same economy, or in order that the heat of the 
escaping gases may remain constant, the length of 
the tube must be increased in proportion to the 
increased quantity of gases passing through. 

When we consider the heat to be imparted to the 
tube-surface by radiation, which, however slight, is 
probably the principal mode of transfer in vertical 
and other long tubes, where the convection among 
the particles of gas cannot be supposed to take 
place to any great extent, we may assume the heat 
to be concentrated in the axis of the tube, whence 
we find the quantity of heat received in a given 
time by the surface from radiation will be inversely 
as the square of the diameter. By doubling the 
diameter, we shall have four times the quantity of 
gases passed through, and the quantity of heat re- 
ceived in a given time will be only one-quarter of 
what it was before, owing to the increase of distance. 
The surface being, however, twice as great, the 
absorption per unit of length becomes equal to the 
vriginal. Therefore, in order to bring the evapora- 
tive efficiency up to the original, we must double the 
length of tube or we must:increase the heating sur- 
face as the square of the diameter, in order to obtain 


the same evaporative efficiency from radiation when 
6* E 


66 USE AND ABUSE OF 


increasing the diameter of a tube. But, if we re- 
duce the diameter to one-half, we increase the 
absorbing power fourfold per unit of surface; the 
heating surface being, however, reduced to one-half, 
the evaporative power of the tube will be only 
doubled, whence the tube may be reduced to one- 
half the original length, still retaining the same 
evaporative efficiency, or, the length remaining un- 
altered, the quantity of gases passing through should 
be doubled to maintain the same temperature at the 
‘ escaping end, or, as before, the efficiency of each 
square foot of heating surface is increased inversely 
as the square of the diameter. 

The easiest method, and, consequently, the one: 
most frequently adopted, is to measure the quantity 
of water by the difference of its height in the glass 
gauge at the beginning and end of the experiment. 
But this method is very uncertain, as there can be 
but little doubt that in many boilers the surface of 
the water is not level, but is generally higher over: 
the furnace, where the greatest ebullition takeg 
place; the difference in the height at any time will 
greatly depend on the intensity of the firing. Me- 
ters are frequently employed for measuring the 
quantity of water that enters a boiler in a given 
time; but, like all other contrivances resorted to for 
that purpose, they are not always reliable. The 
only sure method of ascertaining the quantity of 
water evaporated is by actual measurement with a 


1 
THE STEAM-BOILER. 67 


cistern or vessel whose cubic contents are accurately 
known. The quantity of water in the boiler, before 
and after the trial, should be measured at the same 
temperature, which should not exceed 212°, to in 
sure accuracy. 

But even when the amount of water introduced 
and the quantity passed off from the boiler are 
accurately ascertained, there yet remains a doubt as 
to how much has been actually evaporated, and how 
much may have passed off in priming, as there are 
very few boilers that do not prime more or less, and 
the quantity of water passed off in this manner is 
sometimes very considerable, and often furnishes 
boiler-makers, and more particularly manufacturers 
of patent boilers, an opportunity to delude steam- 
users with the belief that their boilers are capable 
of evaporating fourteen or fifteen pounds of water 
to one pound of ordinary coal. 

It has been generally assumed, from the experi- 
ments of scientists, that in ordinary practice double 
the amount of air necessary for complete combus- 
tion passes through the furnace. Hence all attempts 
to reduce the law of evaporations to a standard, 
which would apply to all boilers, or to frame rules 
that would be applicable to all conditions of draft, 
have thus far been based on assumptions which have 
no precise foundation, as, however thorough and 
satisfactory the researches of Joule, Peclet, Rankine, 
aud Prideaux may have been ir the laboratory, 


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THE STEAM-BOILER. 69 


when applied to ordinary practice in mills or fac- 
tories the results are very different. 

The quantity of steam that can be generated’ in 
any boiler in a given time is dependent upon a great 
variety of circumstances, such as size of grate—be- 
cause more fuel can be burned on a large grate than 
on a small one—the amount of heating surface, 
draft, nature of the combustion, firing, arrange- 
ments for firing, character and condition of the 
heating surface, etc. It must also be understood 
that the larger a boiler is, and the more extensive its 
heating surface is in proportion to the steam it must 
generate, the more water it will evaporate per pound 
of coal, or, in other words, the more economical it 
will be in its consumption of fuel. The rate of 
evaporation of different boilers, viz., cylinder, flue, 
tubular, whether stationary or marine, locomotive or 
sectional, under the most favorable circumstances, 
ranges from six to nine pounds of water for each 
pound of coal burned, and under ordinary circum- 
stances from four to six. 


CLAPP & JONES’ VERTICAL CIRCULATING 
TUBULAR BOILER. 


This boiler is vertical with fire- and water-tubes. 
The fire-tubes extend from the crown-sheet of the fire- 
box up through the top of the shell. The water-tubes 
are pendant from the crown of the fire-box, the outer 


70 USE AND ABUSE OF 


rows extending nearly to the bottom, the inner ones 
being shorter. By this arrangement, the water is 
isolated into thin films or sheets, which has the effect 
of generating steam very rapidly. It is also provided 
with a peculiar arrangement for the circulation of 
the water, which is of great importance in boilers of 
small capacity, that are required to make a large 
quantity of steam in a short space of time. Steam 
can be raised from cold water in from four to six 
minutes from the time of lighting the fire. Another 
very valuable feature of these boilers is, that they 
will not foam or prime under the most excessive 
firing; consequently there is no danger of them 
becoming overheated or burned, and either fresh or 
salt water can be used in them without any incon- 
venience. 


METHODS OF TESTING THE EVAPORATIVE 
EFFICIENCY OF STEAM-BOILERS. 


The most general method of testing the evapora- 
tive capacity of steam-boilers consists in filling them 
up to a certain point, in marking the glass gauge at 
that point when the steam is up to the working press- 
ure, and letting the fire burn nearly out. Then 
supply it with weighed coal and work it for a given 
number of hours, noting the water pumped in, and 
also the coal burned; then the fire is again allowed 
to burn down to a few embers, and the water is 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 71 


allowed to come to the same level at which it stood 
at starting. Then the weight of the water pumped 
in, divided by the weight in pounds of the coal 
burned, will give the evaporative economy of the 
boiler, and the weight of water evaporated per square 
foot of heating surface per hour will give its abso- 
lute evaporative efficiency. This method of testing 
boilers, though approaching accuracy, cannot be 
considered absolutely so, as it does not determine the 
quantity of water that may be primed or carried out 
with the steam, instead of being evaporated out of 
the boiler. 

Another method is to weigh the water in a tank 
placed on a platform scale and register, with the 
thermometer the temperature of the feed meter as it 
enters the boiler, and the pressure of the steam by 
the gauge; and in the case of large boilers, where it 
is inconvenient or impracticable to weigh the water, 
it can be measured in a tank with tolerable accuracy. 
This method is open to the same uncertainty as the 
other, as it only shows the weight of the water 
pumped in, the quantity of coal consumed, and the 
pressure of the steam. But it does not show the 
actual quantity of dry steam, nor the quantity of 
_ water that passed over in the shape of spray. — 


Ff Steam- Boilers in general were better cared 

* for than they are, their working age might 
5e Greatly increased. Deposits of incrusta- 
tion, small leaks, and slight corrosion, are 
teo often neglected as matters of little conse- 
giience, but they are the forerunners of ex- 
pensive repairs, delay, and disaster, 

72 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 73 


PROPORTION OF GRATE SURFACE TO HEATING 
SURFACE. 


The proportion of grate surface to heating sur- 
face differs very materially in different boilers. In 
the locomotive, the proportion is one square foot of 
grate surface to fifty square feet of heating surface. 
Marine boilers, about twenty-eight square feet of 
heating surface to one square foot of grate surface. 
Plain cylinder boilers, fifteen square feet of heating 
surface to one square foot of grate surface. Flue 
boilers, eighteen square feet of heating surface to one 
square foot of grate surface. Tubular boilers, twenty- 
four square feet of heating surface to one square foot 
of grate surface. Sectional boilers, about thirty 
square feet of heating surface to one square foot of 
‘grate surface. 


INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL CORROSION OF 
STEAM-BOILERS. 


Internal and external corrosion are two of the 
maladies that affect the integrity and limit the dura- 
bility of all classes of steam-boilers, stationary, loco- 
motive, and marine, and their cause and prevention 
may be said to be among the most obscure subjects 
in the whole range of steam-engineering. 

Internal corrosion presents itself in various forms, 
each haying a peculiar character of its own, though 


Lord 


( 


74 USE AND ABUSE OF 


only sometimes strongly marked; these are desig- 
nated as uniform corrosion, wasting, pitting, honey- 
combing, and grooving. 

External corrosion is said to be due to galvanic 
action, or the influence of chemicals and dampness 
combined. Uniform corrosion is that description of 
wasting of the plates or tubes, where the water cor- 
rodes them, in a more or less uniform manner, in 
patches of considerable extent, and where there is 
usually no well-defined line between the corroded 
part and the sound plate. The presence of this, as 
well as of other kinds of corrosion, can generally 
be easily detected, even when covered with a consid- 
erable thickness of incrustation, as its presence is 
often revealed on emptying the boiler by the bleed- 
ing, or red streaks, where the scale is cracked; al- 
though in some cases, even where the plates are free 
from incrustation, uniform corrosion, in consequence 
of its even surface and the absence of any well-de- 
fined limit to its extent, may sometimes escape detec- 
tion. 

Even when actually discovered, the depth to 
which it has penetrated can only be ascertained by 
drilling holes through the plate and measuring the 
* amount of material remaining. With lap-joints, the 
thickness remaining at the edge of the plate and round 
the rivet-heads may serve as a guide to the amount 
of wasting; but this may prove treacherous, since 
the adjacent plates may both be corroded to an equal 


THE STEAM-BOILER, To 


extent along with the rivet-heads, which will give 
the edge of the plate the appearance of having the 
original thickness. 

Another peculiarity worthy of notice is the differ- 
ent manner in which the plates and rivet-heads are 
atfected by different kinds of waters after the wasting 
has been going on for some time. In most cases the 
corroded iron is readily removed, if it does not come 
off without means being taken to detach it. But 
cases are to be met withe where the corroded iron 
adheres tenaciously to the sound plate beneath. In 
such cases considerable force is required to remove 
it, and the presence of the corrosion is not suspected 
until the hammer or pick is forcibly applied. 

It frequently occurs that in the case of two boilers 
alike in every respect, fed with the same water and 
subject to the same treatment, one may be found at- 
tacked at the front end, whilst the other may be af- 
fected only on the bottom at the back end. 

With the feed-water from one supply only corro- 
sion is found more often under an incrustation of 
sulphaté of lime than under one consisting chiefly of 
carbonate of lime. In many boilers fed with water 
containing the former salt,a coating of oxide of iron 
of a black color may be found adhering to the de- 
tached scale, which, as often as it reforms and is 
broken off, brings with it-a fresh film of oxide. 

Various means, such as the use of rain, surface, 
and distilled waters, have been employed for the pre- 


76 USE AND ABUSE OF 


vention of internal corrosion ; but they were all found 
impracticable and generally abandoned, as the ex- 
pense involved in most cases was found to exceed 
that of replacing the corroded boiler with a new one. 
even after a service of only a few years. There does 
not appear to be any known remedy that affords pro- 
tection to boilers against this fearful eek mysterious 
phenomenon. 

External corrosion is frequently more destructive 
than internal, particularly in the case of stationary 
boilers. This probably arises from the fact that its 
presence is less suspected, and is often less easily de- 
tected, in consequence of the covering of brickwork 
or other material surrounding the shell. The most 
frequent causes of external corrosion are exposure to 
the weather, leakage from seams, dripping from 
safety- or other valves, moisture arising from the 
ground, either from the damp nature of the location, 
or from the want of proper appliances to carry off 
the waste water. <A slight leakage from a bad joint 
may be sufficient to cause a severe local grooving at 
the seam or flange, as it often goes on for a length 
of time unperceived and unsuspected, especially when 
the shell is covered by brickwork or other material 
to prevent the radiation of heat, as in such cases, if 
a leak takes place on the upper side of the boiler, 
the whole circumference of the shell is liable to suf- 
fer from it. One of the most remarkable phenomena 
connected with all kinds of corrosion, is the singular 


THE STEAM-BOILER. Tt 


manner in which they make their appearance and 
act, affecting very few boilers alike, or even in the 
same locality. 

Corrosion of Marine Boilers. — Marine boilers 
seldom last more than four or five years; whereas 
Jand boilers, made of the same quality of iron, often 
last fifteen or twenty years; yet the difference in 
durability is not the effect of any chemical action 
upon the iron by the contact of sea-water, for the flues 
of marine boilers rarely show any deterioration from 
this ‘cause ; and even in worn-out marine boilers, the 
hammer-marks on the flues are as conspicuous as at 
the time of their formation. 

The thin film or scale spread over the internal 
parts of marine boilers would seem of itself to pre- 
serve that part of the iron from corrosion which is 
situated below the water-level ; but, strange as it may 
seem, it is rare ‘to find any internal corrosion of 
boilers using salt water, in those parts of the boiler 
with which the water comes in contact; the cause, 
therefore, of the rapid corroding of marine boilers is 
not traceable to the chemical action of salt water, as 
steamships provided with surface condensers, which 
supply the boilers with fresh water, have not reaped 
~uch benefit in the durability of their boilers. 

vires 


78 USE AND ABUSE OF 


INTERNAL GROOVING IN STEAM-BOILERS. 


Among the many defects which are discovered by 
the inspection of steam-boilers is that of internal 
crooving or channelling. This is a progressive defect, 
and always in the direction of danger. It is found 
running near and parallel with longitudinal seams, 
and also parallel with girth seams. Various causes 
have been assigned as the origin of this defect, but 
there has not been as yet full agreement of author- 
ities as to its real cause. But it is undoubtedly 
akin to internal and external ,corrosion, and arises 
generally from the disturbance of the fibre of the 
iron, caused by the effort of the boiler, under heat, 
to adjust itself to certain conditions. Thus a boiler, 
as is well known, is made of sheets or plates, with 
the edges lapping one over the other. 

It will be readily seen that, no matter how well a 
boiler is constructed, its form can only approximate 
to a true cylinder. Hence, under internal pressure, 
the effort to arrive at a perfect cylindrical form 
brings an undue strain to bear along the inner edge 
of the lap, which, by being varied from time to time, 
under different degrees of pressure, is affected very 
much as a piece of iron would be by bending it 
back and forth many times, only in less degree. 
Now, this continued variation from day to day, 
year in and year out, disturbs the fibre of the iron 
along the edge of the lap, and renders it more liable 


THE STEAM-BOILER, fi 













































































THE SILSBY VERTICAL STEAM-BOILER, 


80 USE AND ABUSE OF 


to the attack of acids in the water. These grooves 
are generally narrow, and look as though they had 
been originally cut with a tool; the grooves round 
the curvilinear seams are caused in a similar way. 
The heat on the bottom of the boiler expands it 
-more than the other portions, and there isa tendency 
to cause the boiler to bend back and forth at a point, 
or at points, at right angles to its length. The fire 
becomes disturbed and loosened, and is consequently 
readily attacked by the acids in the water. 


SILSBY’S VERTICAL TUBULAR BOILER. 


This boiler has water-tubes passing directly 
through the fire, which are closed at the bottom 
and open at the top, where they pass through a 
water-tight plate, and communicate with the water 
in the boiler. Inside of each water-flue there is a 
circulating-tube, running the entire length of the 
flues. By this arrangement a constant current is 
kept up, the water rising as it is heated to give off 
its steam, and its place being taken by the cooler 
current flowing downwards. It is claimed that, by 
this arrangement, steam can be.more rapidly gener- 
ated than by any other in use. 


EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION OF BOILERS. 


A great difficulty to be contended with in the 
management and working of steam-boilers arises 


THE STEAM-BOILER. : 81 


from the unequal expansion and contraction of 
parts of the structure. In some instances these are 
so great as to be the cause of more “wear and tear” 
than any other condition to which the boiler is sub- 
jected ; consequently, in raising steam in new boilers, 
or those that have been blown out and allowed to 
cool down, great care should be taken in allowing 
the fire to burn moderately, as otherwise the boiler 
may be seriously weakened, if not permanently in- 
jured ; more particularly so in the case of flue and 
tubular boilers, as the flues or tubes, being exposed 
to the direct action of the fire, and generally of a 
thinner material than the shell, expand much more 
quickly, and, as a result, the ends of the boiler are 
forced outward, and the whole structure expcesed to 
an enormous strain. Z 
When the flues of boilers are placed nearer to 
the bottom than to the top, the strain, from unequal 
expansion and contraction, is often such that the 
plates of the under part of the outer shell are torn 
or broken; and, in other cases, leaks take place in 
positions where they are most difficult to discover. 
When a boiler is set with only a small portion of its 
bottom exposed to the heat, and a great portion of 
the structure exposed to the atmosphere, as is the 
common practice, a powerful agency is left at full 
liberty to work out most injurious results. The heat 
will expand that portion of the boiler to which it is 


applied, while the other portion, exposed to the cold 
F 


82 | USE AND ABUSE OF 


atmosphere, will contract. Thus the two forces are 
left to exert their respective powers against each 
other, tending to tear the boiler asunder by means 
almost imperceptible. 

A boiler under steam is often strained, especially 
in a longitudinal direction, more by the greater dila- 
tion of the tubes compared with the shell, or by the | 
unequal expansion of the top and bottom of the 
shell, than by the actual steam pressure. The per- 
sistent leakage often experienced at the seams, along 
the bottom of horizontal internally-fired boilers, may 
in most cases be ascribed to the difference in tem- 
perature of the water and steam at the bottom and 
top of the boiler; but in some cases the leakage is 
principally caused by the longitudinal straining of 
the bottom of the shell, due to the greater expan- 
sion of the tubes, especially when the firing is forced 
in getting up steam after the boiler has been at rest. 
As this straining would not take place in testing the 
boiler by hydraulic pressure in the usual manner, 
this leakage would not be produced. It follows, 
from the above considerations, that a hydraulic test 
might fail to indicate weakness which would be pro- 
duced and made apparent by steam pressure. 

Boilers are frequently set with the upper surface 
exposed to the atmosphere, and when the under sur. 
face becomes heated, it expands rapidly, while the 
upper portion, exposed to the cold atmosphere, if it 
does not positively contract, will expand but slightly ; 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 83 


thus. these two forces are left to exert their respective 
powers against each other, tending to tear the boiler 
asunder ; and the ultimate result is, not unfrequently, 
anexplosion. Iron expands in volume one eight- 
hundredth, or, in other words, a bar of iron, one 
inch square, and eight hundred inches long, would 
expand one inch in length, while heated from the 
freezing- to the boiling-point of water. The propor- 
tion of expansion for any length of bar, correspond- 
ing to any length of boiler, can be easily estimated. 
Tt is not to be understood, however, that the maxi- 
mum expansion would occur in boilers generally, 
for it is rare that one is allowed to get so Jow in 
temperature as thirtv degrees; still, in the winter 
season, boilers, when “ blown down,” are liable to 
become very cold. 


HEATING-SURFACE OF STEAM-BOILERS. 


The heating-surface of a steam-boiler may be 
defined as all those parts of the shell, flues, tubes, fire- 
box, crown-sheet, and tube-sheet§, with which the 
heated gases, in their escape from the furnace to 
the chimney, come in contact; and the heat is trans- 
mitted to the heating-surface in different ways, by 
radiation and contact, and from different hot masses ; 
by contact with the solid, incandescent fuel in the 
furnace; and by radiation of the flame and gases 
beyond the bridge-wall, or tube-sheet. 


84 USE AND ABUSE OF 


The amount of heat transmitted by radiation from 
one body to another diminishes as the square of the 
distance between the bodies increases. The effect on . 
any surface is also diminished by any increase in the 
inclination at which the rays fall upon it. The 
radiation from solid, incandescent fuel is greater 
than from flame,whilst transparent, hot gases scarcely 
radiate any heat at all. The more intense the con- 
tact heat of the flame is by thorough mixture with 
the air, the less is the heat by radiation. Conduc- 
tion is the transfer of heat, either between the par- 
ticles of the same body, or between the parts of 
different bodies ia contact, and it is distinguished, 
respectively, as internal and external conduction. 
The rate at which the former takes place in metal 
plates exceeds very much that of the latter, in which 
the heat passes from the hot mass to the plates, and 
from these again to the water. 

The efficiency of any heating-surface may be 
defined as the proportion borne by the amount of 
heat it transmits to the whole amount available for 
transmission. <A flat, horizontal surface, not too far 
above the layer of fuel, is usually considered to be 
the most favorable for raising steam. By being 
made concave to the fire, it has, however, the further 
advantages of being still better adapted for receiving 
the radiant heat; of facilitating the access of fresh 
supplies of water to replace the heated, ascending 
particles, and thereby promoting the circulation ; of 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 85 


boiling off the matters deposited from the water, and 
so preventing incrustation; and of being stronger, 
and, in some cases, more durable. 

Next in efficiency to the flat surface, with the 
water above, comes the sloping surface surrounding 
the fire, which is superior to a vertical one, as it 
receives the rays of heat at a more favorable angle, 
and allows the steam bubbles to escape more freely. 
The value of horizontal surfaces beneath the fire is _ 
not worthy of consideration as heating-surface. In 
externally-fired boilers the heating-surface is usually 
convex to the fire. This is, by many, regarded as 
inferior to a concave surface, probably because it is 
not so well adapted for directly receiving the radiant 
heat from the fire, and does not appear to offer an 
equal facility for circulation. The results obtained 
from this description of surface, in actual work, do 
not appear to verify this conclusion, as it is generally 
admitted that a convex surface, and not a concave 
one, is the best form for flame and heat to impinge 
against, and hence a large, convex surface, or a 
series of stnall convex surfaces, will give the best 
results, and, other things being equal, prove the 
most economical and effective. Where the products 
of combustion pass through a number of tubes, as 
in tubular boilers, the most effective heating-surface, 
after the bottom of the shell, is of course the top of 
the tubes, the lower or bottom part being of little 


avail. The question of the relative effectiveness of 
| 8 


86 USE AND ABUSE OF 


convex and concave heating-surfaces is one which 
should be thoroughly tested. 

There seems to be a wide diversity of opinion 
among engineers as to what portion of the shell, 
flues, and tiibes of steam-boilers should be recognized 
as heating-surface, in estimating the horse-power, or, 
ia other words, as their theoretic evaporative capac- 
ity. Some portions of the heating-surface of all 
steam-boilers are exposed to the direct action of the 
fire, while the heated gases only come in contact 
with others, the area differing in different boilers. 
For this reason it has frequently been suggested 
that the heating-surface of boilers should be divided 
into what might be termed direct and indirect heat- 
ing-surface. The direct heating-surface in some 
boilers is about one-sixth, while in others it is from 
one-seventh to one-eighth, and in some instances one- 
ninth, of the entire superficial area. The direct 
heating-surface is the more efficient, and the lower 
side of flues and tubes of horizontal boilers is less 
efficient than the upper side, as, when they become 
covered with a stratum of ashes, they are of very 
little value; the same thing may be said of the 
shells and tube-sheets of boilers when they become 
thickly coated with soot or ashes, as is frequently 
the case. : 

But there are certain difficulties in the way of 
separating the heating-surfaces into two different 
parts, and of estimating the relative value of such, 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 87 


because, if the under side of flues and tubes is to be 
left out, the question will arise, what has become of 
the heat transferred within? There was some heat 
transferred, however inefficient or foul the flues or 
tubes may be. The crowns and tubes of vertical 
boilers may be said to be all direct heating-surface, 
but vertical tubes are less efficient than horizontal, 
when the conditions are the same. 

In estimating the heating-surface of steam-boil- 
ers, it is best to include all the surfaces exposed 
to the direct action of the fire and in contact with 
the heated gases, otherwise it would be difficult 
to determine the relative evaporative efficiency of 
steam-boilers, as compared with their heating-sur- 
face ; besides, it would give rise to an endless discus- 
sion as to what portion should be termed direct, and 
what indirect, and their relative value and other 
perplexing questions. 


RULES FOR FINDING THE HEATING-SURFACE 
OF STEAM-BOILERS. 


Rule for Locomotive or Fire-box Boilers.— Mul- 
tiply the length of the furnace-plates in inches by 
their height above the grate in inches; multiply the 
width of the ends in inches by their height in inches; 
multiply the length of the crown-sheet in inches by 
its width in inches; also the combined circumference 
of all the tubes in inches by their length in inches ; 


88 USE AND ABUSE OF 


from the sum of these four products subtract the 
combined area of all the tubes and the fire-door; 
divide the remainder by 144, and the quotient will 
be the number of square feet of heating-surface. 

Rule for Flue Boilers.— Multiply 2 of the cir- 
cumference of the shell in inches by its length in 
inches; multiply the combined circumference of all- 
the flues in inches by their length in inches; divide 
the sum of these two products by 144, and the 
quotient will be the number of square feet of heating- 
surface. 

Rule for Cylinder Boilers.— Multiply 2 of the 
circumference in inches .by its length in inches; 
divide this sum by 144, and the quotient will be the 
number of square feet of heating-surface. 

Rule for Tubular Boilers.— Multiply 2 of the cir- 
cumference of the shell in inches by its length in 
inches; multiply the combined circumference of all 
the tubes in inches by their length in inches. To the 
sum of these two products add 2 the area of both 
tube-sheets; from this sum subtract the combined 
area of all the tubes; divide the remainder by 144, 
and the quotient will be the number of square feet of 
heating-surface. 

_ Rule for finding the Heating-Surface of Vertical 
Tubular Boilers, such as are generally used for Fire- 
engines.— Multiply the circumference of the fire-box 
in inches by its height above the grate in inches. 
Multiply the combined circumference of all the 


THE STEAM-BOILER, | 89 


tubes in inches by their length in inches, and to 
these two products add the area of the lower tube- 
or crown-sheet, and from this sum subtract the area 
of all the tubes, and divide by 144. The quotient 
will be the number of square feet of heating-surface 
in the boiler. ; 


THE LATTA STEEL COIL-BOILER. 


The cuts.on pages 90 and 9! represent the Latta 
_ Steel Coil-boiler, which, it will be understood, is an 
upright; but with this exception, it differs from any 
other steam-generator now in use. It consists of a 
steam- and water-space, which forms the fire-box, in- 
side of which is securely fastened a coil, through which 
the feed-water is forced ; thus giving an abundance of 
heating-surface, without any danger of burning the 
parts most exposed to the fire; and as the coil has 
plenty of room in which to expand and contract, it 
obviates the evi's resulting from undue strains in- 
duced by unequal expansion and contraction. The 
water is supplied to the coil by a pump, which makes 
a forced circulation, — this being the quickest way 
known to make steam, and has the additional ad- 
vantage of never allowing any sediment or scale to 
collect in the tubes, which must necessarily increase’ 
the durability of the boiler. The shells are cylin- 
drical, and are made of the best steel-plate-and the 
most excellent workmanship. They are very effi- 
8* 


90 


USE AND ABUSE OF 






































SECTIONAL VIEW OF THE LATTA STEAM-BOILER, 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 










































































































































































BOTTOM VIEW OF THE LATTA STEAM BOILER, 


91 


92 USE AND ABUSE OF 


cient, as steam can be raised on them, from cold 
water, in from three to four minutes. 


HORSE-POWER OF STEAM-BOILERS. 


There is not at the present time, nor has there 
ever been, any fixed rule in this country, or in 
England, for estimating the horse-power of steam- 
boilers, —that is to say, any rule universally recog- 
nized by the trade. It has long been a custom in 
England to estimate the horse-power of boilers for 
stationary engines by their length, regardless of the 
diameter and other conditions. In marine engines 
we find some makers estimating their power entirely 
by the grate-surface, one maker dividing his grate 
area by .8 and calling the result a horse-power, an- 
other by .75, and another by .5. Thus a boiler with 
100 square feet of grate-surface may be called 125, 
133, or 200 horse-power. Others, again, neglect 
grate-surface altogether, and calculate by the heat- 
ing-surface, anything between 12 and 25 feet being 
said by different makers to represent a horse-power. 

More recently the evaporation of one cubic foot 
of water per hour has been generally adopted as a 
standard for a horse-power in steam-boilers. This 
rule assumes that the flues are of adequate size and 
form to afford sufficient draft; that the fuel is of 
average quality, and that the area of the grate is suf- 
ficient for the consumption of at least seven pounds 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 93 


of anthracite coal per square foot per hour, or other 
combustible fuel equa] in value to that amount. It 
may be admitted that a cubic foot of water evaporated 
into steam is an abundance for one actual horse-power, 
even when used at a very low pressure, and in the 
cylinder of an engine without expansion, but when 
used at a high pressure and worked expansively, it 
will yield in the best class of engines one and a 
half to two borse-power. Under the most favorable 
circumstances the area of grate-surface and the square: 
feet of heating surface required to evaporate a cubic 
foot of water would be about ten square feet of heat- 
ing-surface and one-half square foot of grate-surface ; 
but there are few very favorable circumstances con- 
nected with the economical working of steam-boilers, 
as there are many agencies at work tending to coun- 
teract this result, amongst which may be mentioned 
the conducting power of the material of which the 
boiler is made, the condition of the internal and ex- 
ternal surface of the boiler, the method of applying the 
heat to the heating-surface, the temperature of feed- 
water, and the skill employed in careand management. 

Certain vague notions have long existed among 
engineers and steam-users that in adjusting the di- 
mensions of steam-boilers it is better to have them 
larger than is absolutely necessary, and it has grown 
into a custom to recommend a 15-horse power boiler 
for a 10-horse power engine, a 25-horse power 
boiler for a 20-horse power engine, and so on. 


94 USE AND ABUSE OF 


This rule works well for the seller, but it does not 
always work both ways, as boiler-makers very 
often deceive purchasers in the extent of heating- 
surface they ought to receive, such misrepresentatious 
creating mutual distrust, disappointment, and dissat- 
isfaction. It seems rather singular that all the ordi- 
nary rules of trade should be reversed when the 
question becomes one of the purchase or sale of a 
steam-boiler, and that the relations of the buyer and 
seller should not be conducted in accordance with 
the established standards of pounds, tons, feet, yards, 
gallons, or even capacity, but that the purchaser 
offers so much money for material or work to the 
~ seller,and both understand by custom that the boiler 
should have a certain capability, which they term the 
horse-power. 

The recognized rule in this country, after calcu- 
lating the entire heating-surface, is to allow for cyl- 
inder boilers 15 square feet of heating-surface, 1 
square foot of grate-surface ; for flue boilers, 15 square 
feet of heating-surface, and } square feet of grate- 
surface ; and for tubular boilers, 15 to 16 square feet 
of heating surface, and } of a square foot of grate- 
surface for each horse-power; a more liberal allow- 
ance of grate-surface would insure more satisfactory 
results. Attempts have been made at different times 
by scientific men to disregard proportions in estimat- 
ing the power of steam-boilers, and to discontinue 
the term horse-power as a misnomer, having no defi- 


THE STEAM-BOTLER. 95 


nite meaning; but as the foregoing proportions have 
given general satisfaction to both purchaser and seller, 
and are recognized and well understood by me- 
chanics, it would be almost impossible to change them. 
Although, like the term horse-power as applied to 
the steam-engine, they may not be an exact stand- 
ard of what they are intended to represent, yet they 
are so interwoven in the mechanical questions of the 
country, and there are so many interested in pre- 
serving the term horse-power, that any attempt to 
abolish it, or to reject the proportions which custom 
has so long recognized, would be productive of great 
confusion both to practical men and mechanics. 
The settlement of the question of the horse- 
power of steam-boilers, or the establishment of a 
standard that would apply, if not to all, at least to 
-the best known and most generally used types, is 
very much to be desired. This can only be done by 
practical experiment, as the results produced in a 
small, clean vessel of high conducting power, placed 
over a fire of pure carbon, with the most accurate 
method of regulating the quantity of air admitted, 
even though conducted by such scientists as Rankine, 
Ure, Peclet, Box, and others equally distinguished, 
ean hardly be said to be‘admissible, when compared 
with ordinary practice. Such experiments are inter- 
esting, inasmuch as they go to show the efficiency 
of a certain area of heating-surface, and the quantity 
_ of heat and of work stored up in good fuel, but they 


96 USE AND ABUSE OF 


form no precedent for ordinary practice, as the con- 
ditions under which they are tried never exist in the 
steam-boilers used in mills and factories ; besides, the 
calculations necessary to convert such results into 
fixed standards, if at all understood, are not much 
relished, being too complicated for engineers in gen- 
eral, 

There are certain difficulties to be encountered 
in adjusting or fixing a standard for the horse-power 
of steam-boilers, that would apply to all and meet 
with universal recognition, which the engineers and 
scientific men of the past or the present have not 
been able to successfully overcome, nor is it at all 
likely that they ever will be. It seems an experi- 
ence of seventy years has not shed much light on this 
subject; proof of this may be found in the fact that 
as often as the subject of the adjustment of the horse- 
power of steam-boilers is revived, Watt and Smeaton 
are quoted as high authority, and they undoubtedly 
are, as very little is known on the subject at the 
present day beyond that which was understood in 
their days. Such quotations furnish a virtual ac- 
knowledgment that, notwithstanding all the experi- 
ence of the past, in addition to more modern 
improvements in the quality of boiler material, in 
designs, in the character of the fuel and skill of 
management, the results are as unsatisfactory, and 
there is as great a diversity of opinion existing on 
that subject at the present day as there was in the 
days of Watt. 


THE STEAM BOILER. Ol 


EXAMPLE, 


Diameter of boiler, 48 inches. 
Length “ oe feet 
46 3-inch tubes. 


3)150.7968 circumference of shell. 


50.2656 
2 


100.5312 
132 length in inches. 


2010624 
3015936 
1005312 


13270.1184 sq. in. heating-surface in shell. 


9.4248 circumference of 1 tube. 
46 


565488 
376992 
433.5408 
132 
8670816 
13006224 
4335408 


57227.3856 sq. in. heating-surface in tubes. 


3)1809.5616 area of 1 tube-sheet. 
603.1872 
ea ES 
1206.3744 
2 


2412.7488 sq. in. heating-surface in tube-sheets. 
9 G 


GR, USE AND ABUS5 OF 


7.0686 area of 1 tube. 
46 


424116 
282744 
325.1556 area of tubes. 
ik sh 
650.3112 


13270.1184 
57 227.3856 
2412.7488 
72910.2528 
650.3112, | 
144)72259.9416 total heating-surface in sq. in. 
16)501.8. sq. ft. of heating-surface. 











31. horse-power. 


Grate-surface required, 153 square feet. 


THE MOORHOUSE PATENT SECTIONAL BOILER. 


This boiler consists of several cast-iron tanks, di- 
vided transversely one above another. The connec- 
tions between the apartments are made from the back 
wart of the tanks which forms the tube-sheet. The 
tubes are accurately tapered to fit corresponding 
openings in the tube-sheet, and are drawn in by 
means of brass nuts. The connections between the 
tubes of the upper and lower apartments being 
made with return bends of the lowest tubes, while 
those of the next upper apartment are made with 


THE STEAM-BOILER, — 99 


return bends of the next upper tubes; similarly, 
those of the third apartment are made with return 
bends of the third tier or row of tubes, and so on 
till the upper apartment is reached, the tubes of 
which are connected to the steam-drum by two 
necks, any water carried up with the steam being 
returned to the lower apartments by side return- 


























. ; at wey 


‘ANY Ny 
RAW 
RASA eee ye 
RKO MAY Ws IONE We = 

“MIAN Ww NG 
Ss WS 


An 





























pipes. It is claimed that by this arrangement the 
circulation through the tubes is very rapid, so much 
so, that all deposit is prevented from settling on the 
parts of the boiler most exposed to the fire, but is 
‘arried into the tank apartments, where it settles, 
from which it may be blown out through the blow- 
out pipe. It is so designed and arranged as _ to 
afford the most ample and convenient facilities for 


100 USE AND ABUSE OF 


cleaning, repairing, or renewal of any of its parts. 
It is in very general use, and has a reputation second 
to no other sectional boiler in the country for dura- 
bility, efficiency, and economy ; besides, it is claimed 
to be non-explosive. 


SETTING STEAM-BOILERS. 


While engineers differ very much in opinion re- 
specting the best manner of setting boilers, they all 
readily allow that the results obtained, as regards 
economy of fuel and the generation of steam, depend 
in a great measure on the arrangement of the setting. 
Particularly is this the case with horizontal tubular 
boilers, and there have been numerous plans intro- 
duced to obtain a maximum of steam with a mini- 
mum of fuel. Some of the most practical designs 
and best laid plans are frequently rendered useless 
for want of knowledge on the part of those whose 
duty it is to execute or carry them out. This has 
perhaps been more frequently the case, as regards the 
setting of steam-boilers, than any other class of ma- 
chines, as it is customary for owners of steam-boilers 
to depend too much on the knowledge of masons and 
bricklayers; consequently, a great many blunders 
have been made which necessitated changes in the 
size of grate-bars, alteration of brick-work, alteration 
of flues, chimney, &c., with a list of ether annoy- 
ances, such as insufficiency of steam, peer craught, 
or something else. 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 101 


In setting or putting in boilers, all the surface pos- 
sible should be exposed to the action of the heat of 
the fire, not only that the heat may be thus more 
completely absorbed, but that a more equal expan- 
sion and contraction of the structure may be ob- 
tained. When convenient, it will be found advan- 
tageous to return the draught through a brick flue, 
over the top of the boiler, in order to equalize the 
heat, and consequently the expansion ; and although 
this arrangement does not facilitate the generation 
of steam, yet fuel will be saved by a more complete 
application of the heat, and the prevention of radia- 
tion from the upper part of the boiler. But the 
flame should never be allowed to strike the shell or 
any part of the boiler above the water-line. Many 
of the best boilers in the country have been ruined 
by being so set that the flame from the fire envel- 
oped the whole boiler in order to superheat the 
steam. While it may be admitted that the steam can 
be superheated or dried in this way, it is always done 
at the expense of the boiler. 

Long boilers are often hung by means of loops 
riveted to the top of them and connected to cross- 
beams and arches, resting on masonry above them, 
by means of hangers. This is a very mischievous 
arrangement, unless turn-buckles, or some other 
contrivance, are used to maintain a regular strain 
on all the hangers, as long boilers, exposed to an 


excessive heat, are apt to lengthen on the lower 
9* 


102 USE AND ABUSE OF 


side and relieve the end hangers of any weight ; conse- 
quently, the whole strain is transmitted to the central 
hanger, which has a tendency to draw the boiler out 
of shape—in many instances- inducing excessive 
leakage, rupture, and eventually explosion. 

The most permanent practical method of setting 
boilers is to rivet cast-iron brackets or knees to their 
ends and centre, about twelve feet apart, resting on 
brick piers, as by this arrangement one end can 
settle without injuriously affecting the other. These 
brackets, in some instances, rest on small rolls ar- 
ranged in a flanged seat, in order to prevent the 
piers from being forced out when the boiler expands. 
Boilers should be set with as little brickwork in con- 
tact with the shell as practicable. . 

Convenient openings should be arranged in the 
brickwork to facilitate the cleaning of the boiler on 
the outside, as that part of the shell exposed to the 
action of the draught is liable to become permanently 
coated with soot and ashes, rendering a great portion 
of the heating-surface nearly worthless. The difh- 
culty experienced in removing these non-conductors 
from the under side of the boiler, generally arises 
from an improper arrangement at the time of the 
setting and a want of space. 

Some boilers are so injudiciously and improperly 
set that a great amount of heat passes up the chim- 
ney and is lost; while the setting of others is so ar- 
ranged that it is impossible to either clean, examine, 


\ 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 103 


or repair them. Boilers should never be located in 

dark cellars, under sidewalks, or in out-of-the-way 
places, as when so placed they obstruct the light, 
which is so essential to a close examination of all the 
parts; besides boilers located in dark and damp 
places, corrode and waste away more rapidly than 
most people are aware of. 


TESTING STEAM-BOILERS. 


Experience has shown that, let a boiler be ever 
so carefully designed and constructed, there will 
still remain an element of doubt as to its actual 


_ strength, since the material may have sustained 


injuries in the process of construction, which may 
have escaped detection. In the case of a new boiler, 
even by a first-rate manufacturer, to say nothing of 
original and hidden flaws in the plates and castings, 
there is always a possibility of defects, such as bad 


_ welding, careless riveting, plates burnt in flanging, 
s.or cracked in bending, and many other defects that 


may be traced to reckless negligence or want of 
skill; consequently the only means we have of 
ascertaining, with any degree of certainty, the safety 
of a boiler, is by the application of cold-water 
pressure, as many cases of dangerous defects, which 
the strictest scrutiny of the practical boiler-maker 
failed to detect, have been brought to light by 
means of the hydraulic test. 


Y 


104 USE AND ABUSE OF 


There are many forms of boilers which do not 
admit of anything like a proper examination, as, for 
instance, tubular boilers, in which the shell of the 
boiler is filled with tubes nearly to the water-line; 
also, many forms of marine boilers, whose construc- 
tion is so irregular and complicated as to defy even 
an approximate calculation of their strength or con- 
dition. With regard to the various modes of testing, 
by hydraulic pressure, that commonly adopted is to 
pump water in until the desired pressure be reached. 
The condition of the joints and rivets is then looked 
to, and any very conspicuous distortion, leak, or de- 
fect marked; and in cases of permanent distortion, 
or flattening of tubes or flues, the injured parts 
should be immediately removed and repaired, or 
renewed, as the injury to the tube or flue is liable 
to be aggravated by subsequent tests, and eventually 
result in rupture or collapse. 

Some advocate the method of marking the leaky 
joints while the pressure is on, and then lowering 
the pressure for the purpose of calking; this is 
decidedly wrong. Boilers should never be calked 
while under steam- or water-pressure, however light, 
as the jarring induced by the calking is lable to 
spring the seams, and cause fresh leakage in differ- 
ent parts of the boiler. The employment of hot 
water for testing boilers is also recommended by 
some, as it assimilates, more than cold water, the 
conditions under which the boiler is placed when at 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 105 


work. But the water for test should never be more 
than moderately warm, as the hydraulic test is 
comparatively worthless, without a thorough exam- 
ination of the boiler at the same time; and it is 
impossible to do so in cases where hot water is used, 
in consequence of the presence of so much heat 
under and around the boiler. 

In some cases, the plan has been adopted of fill- 
ing the boiler with water, closing every outlet, and ~ 
putting fire to it. As water expands about 3; in 
volume in rising from 60° to 212°, the rise of tem- 
perature, as the water becomes heated, will cause a 
corresponding increase of pressure, and, from the 
regularity with which the pressure rises, any leak 
that may occur in the boiler will be easily noticed 
by the jerks or starts of the steam-gauge hand. But 
the wisdom of this method is extremely doubtful, as 
it involves a certain amount of danger, and prevents 
the possibility of examining the boiler in the parts 
most likely to be affected during the test. In what- 
ever manner a boiler is tested, great care should be 
taken to obtain the exact amount of pressure em- 
ployed, for the reason that safety-valves are very 
often unreliable, particularly so when water-pressure 
is used, and spring-gauges are not always to be 
trusted, under such circumstances ; in all cases, when 
the cold-water test is applied, two gauges should be 
used ; for, although a boiler cannot explode under 
the hydraulic test, yet many serious accidents have 


106 USE AND ABUSE OF 


occurred by boilers giving way under such circum- 
stances. 

The hydraulic test meets with opposition from 
some engineers, on the ground that it does not tell 
the actual strength of the boiler; but the same 
objection might be urged against the steam and 
expansion tests, as there is no accurate method of 
ascertaining the strength of a boiler but to burst it. 
The hydraulic test is not meant for perfectly sound 
boilers, but for the detection of weaknesses in certain 
parts, and is generally successful for that purpose, 
if well conducted. The injuries arising from an 
excessive application of the hydraulic test are most 
likely to occur to flue. boilers, as, whenever flues 
subjected to external pressure depart from the true 
cylindrical form, or form of greatest resistance, they 
are liable to collapse, even under very low pressure. 

The Sound Test.— The sound test is the most 
reliable of all tests for boilers, when applied by com- 
petent persons. The experienced boiler-inspector 
can easily tell by the sound on his ear whether the 
parts subjected to the blow be sound or not, as all 
the parts that are perfectly sound and in place will 
ring like a bell, whilst the defective parts will 
vibrate with a slow and dull sound, like a loosened 
cord. The sound test should, by all means, be ap- 
plied to all accessible parts of the shells, crown- 
sheets, crown-bars, angle-irons, crow’s-feet, and braces 
of every description, as it is of the utmost importance 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 107 


that all the braces in a steam-boiler should be sound 
and taut, since they are only substitutes for real 
strength in some part of the structure, and are fre- 
quently very poor ones at that, as the ignorant man- 
ner in which they are frequently applied, and the 
fact that they are, in many instances, allowed to 
become slack, render them insecure, if not positively 
dangerous. 


REPAIRING STEAM-BOILERS. 


The principal causes of loss and danger in the 
use of the steam-boiler, arise from delay in making 
timely repairs, and also from the injudicious manner 
in which the repairing is done. It is often thought 
that a botch will do just as well as a more skilled 
and costly mechanic; this is a mistake, as nowhere is 
the ready command of resources, knowledge of the 
adaptability of means to ends, skill of eye and hand, 
common sense and sound judgment, which go to make 
up an accomplished mechanic, more necessary than 
in repairing, inasmuch as it is not the same old 
routine day after day, by which men become mere 
machines instead of original thinkers, which is re- 
quired, as every job varies in some particular from 
every other, and each must be repaired in a different 
way. It requires brains as well as manual skill to 
do this kind of work in a creditable manner, and 
every owner of a steam-boiler or steam-engine will 


108 USE AND ABUSE OF 


find it good policy to put his repairing in the hands. 
of a practical mechanic. 

It is both good policy and economy to repair as 
soon as anything is out of order; this is particularly 
true in the case of steam-boilers. As when allowed 
to run as long as they will, or until they are con- 
sidered dangerous, aside from the danger, it is often 
found impossible to render them safe or serviceable 
again. <A defect which would have cost but a trifle 
to repair in the first place, owing to neglect, fre- 
quently necessitates the replacing of the whole 
boiler. 

When putting a patch on a boiler, the defective 
parts should be cut out, and the part cut out should 
be as nearly round as circumstances will permit; a 
square hole should never be cut in any boiler, but 
when of necessity it has to be done, rounded corners 
should be left. 

When it becomes necessary to put a new sheet 
on an old boiler, it is advisable to have the new plate 
a little thinner than the old one, and it should be so 
arranged that the calking may be done on the new 
iron. After repairing a boiler it should always be 
tested with cold water. Never place the edge of the 
laps towards the fire, unless they are a considerable 
distance from it. Cracks running from hole to hole 
in boiler-seams are more dangerous than those that 
run towards the centre of the plate or outer edge 
of the lap. Short cracks may be prevented from 


THE STEAM-BOILER. - - 109 


extending by drilling a hole in the end so as to com- 
pletely drill out the crack, and then inserting a rivet 
in the hole. Whenever a leak occurs under a lap or 
seam round any rivet, stay-bolt, or base, entering the 
steam-room or water-space of a boiler, stop it imme- 
diately and have it repaired, as the plate in the 
neighborhood of the leak wastes away very rapidly. 

A great portion of the repairs heretofore done on 
steam-boilers has been executed on Sunday, which is 
decidedly wrong, as it is not only a violation of the 
moral law, but has a great influence in encouraging 
inferior workmanship. In the case of a boiler which 
is blown out on Saturday, for the purpose of having 
it repaired on Sunday, every experienced mechanic 
knows that it is impossible to tell how long it will 
take to repair it until the work is actually accom- 
plished, as it most generally happens that, as the 
work proceeds, unlooked for defects are discovered, 
or perhaps a different class of tools is required from 
those that were first intended. This necessitates 
delay, as it is well known that there are not the same 
opportunities for procuring the facilities for making 
a good job on Sunday as there are on other days, 
and as a result the work has to be hurried up, fre- 
quently botched, and in all probability left in a 
worse condition than before it was repaired. Men 
do ess work on Sundays than on other days, being 
less energetic, more anxious to get through, and con- 


sequently more careless and inaccurate. The custom 
10 | 


110 USE AND ABUSE OF 


of examining, testing, or repairing boilers on Sunday 
ought to be abandoned, condemned, and resisted by 
all concerned, as an unlawful, unnecessary, and mis- 
chievous practice. 


NEGLECT OF STEAM-BOILERS. 


Perhaps no appliances connected with factories, 
and other places, where power is used, are more 
sadly neglected than steam-boilers. This is a very 
surprising fact, when we consider the important part 
they occupy in the manufacturing arts. It would 
be difficult to assign any reasonable cause for this 
neglect, except that it may arise from the fact that 
nearly the whole attention of builders and leading 
engineers has been concentrated on the improvement 
and perfection of the steam-engine ; and the practical 
engineer, following the example ‘set by the leaders, 
generally devotes all his attention to it also. 

In all cities, particularly in the business part of 
them, the use of steam-power is very general, and 
almost every square has its steam-boiler. In view 
of this fact, it behooves the merchants, capitalists, 
mechanics, and engineers, owning or in charge of 
boilers, to see that they are always cared for, and in 
as good order as they can be put. Experience has 
demonstrated the fact that very many boilers are not 
only sadly out of repair, but in many instances 
totally unfit to be used at the pressure at which they 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 111 


are worked; and it is also true that these boilers 
have become so by carelessness and neglect. 

In the majority of cases, boilers are not cleaned 
half as often as they should be. When the water is 
hard, and scale accumulates on the sides or flues of 
the boiler, solvents are very often resorted to to re- 
move the scale. After the scale has been thrown down 
it accumulates on the bottom of the boiler, and, if not 
removed at once, it becomes conglomerated, forms a 
heavy coating, and, if the boiler is externally fired, 
the bottom is liable to be burned through. 

The annual reports of the Hartford Steam-Boiler 
Inspection and Insurance Company, year after year, 
show that nearly half of the whole number of defec- 
tive boilers became so on account of incrustation 
and deposit of sediment; and, strange as it may 
seem, there are from thirty to forty per cent. more 
dangerous cases arising from the deposit of sediment 
than from incrustation and scale. The same reports 
further show that more than one-half the defective 
boilers from other causes are due to careless and in- 
competent management, proving clearly that a large 
number of cases from which explosions might be 
expected may be traced to a direct cause. 


WIEGAND SECTIONAL BOILER. 


The cut on page I12 represents the Wiegand Sec- 
tional Boiler. It is composed of a series of separable _ 


112 USE AND ABUSE OF 





KUM CW 
ANN WAC = “E 


A. 
i WX 

ANNI NIN ancy) a \ 
— WY iat co . 


NANNY A cee ge % cod Tei i\\ 


AW 
ANU tA —— RTE REEL ONT 


afi rt 








Urdu fv ilirarn i 


RW 
“N \ 
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WARY 
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AN 


AY A 





THE WIEGAND SECTIONAL BOILER, 


ANNAN ACS 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 113 


sections, of uniform size, placed side by side, and 
united to one feed-pipe and one steam-drum. - Each 
section is composed of a double tank, five feet four 
inches in length, ten and a half inches wide, and 
twenty-four inches in height, twenty-four lap-welded, 
wrought-irou tubes, of three inches external diam- 
eter, with cast-iron cups, or caps, to close their lower 
ends, and a corresponding number of wrought-iron 
inner tubes, of one and three-quarter inches internal 
diameter. 

The bottom of the tank has two rows of apertures, 
twelve in each row, into which the three-inch tubes 
are screwed. ‘The tank is divided into two distinct 
compartments by a perforated diaphragm, placed a 
short distance above and parallel with the bottom. 
The diaphragin has two rows of apertures concentric 
with the apertures in the bottom of the tank, for the 
insertion of the one and three-quarter inch inner 
tubes. The cap, or cup, which closes the lower end 
of the three-inch tube is five inches in length, and is 
cast cylindrical at the part that screws upon the 
tube, below which it is shaped like a cone or funnel, 
with three channels extending from the base through 
its sides to the bottom of the cap, which is shaped 
like the trefoil. 

Externally, the cap presents three Panidictant 
wings, that afford a convenient means of applying a 
correspondingly-shaped wrench, to screw it on or off. 


Within each three-inch tube is placed a one and 
10* H 


114 USE AND ABUSE OF 


three-quarter inch tube, that extends up through the 
apertures in the perforated diaphragm, in which it 
fits loosely. This arrangement permits an uninter- 
rupted flow of water from the tank through the 
inner tubes into the caps; from thence upward 
through the annular spaces between the inner and 
outer tubes into the tank, and through the perforated 
diaphragm upward. These tanks are surmounted 
by a plain wrought-iron cylinder, thirty-six inches 
in diameter, and of such a length as to extend 
through the side walls enclosing the tanks, each 
tank being coupled thereto. This cylinder forms a 
part of the water-space, and all of the steam-space. 
The products of combustion encircle this cylinder. 
Water is supplied to, and blows off from, the section 
through the same orifice in the front end of the 
tank, and the steam passes from the top of the tank 
into the steam-cylinder. The furnace is a rectan- 
gular chamber, eight feet wide and four feet deep, 
with vertical walls, having the usual ash-pit, grate- 
bars, and fire-doors. The heat rises vertically be- 
tween and around the tubes, also around the tanks 
and around the steam-drum, and is equally dis- 
tributed. 

The Wiegand Boiler has the reputation of being 
an efficient steamer, and is claimed to be non-explo- 
sive; but, like all the rest of the sectional boilers, 
little or nothing is known of its durability and econ- 
omy. 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 115 


SAFE WORKING PRESSURE OF STEAM-BOILERS. 


Rule for finding Safe Working Pressure of Steel Boil- 
ers.—Multiply thickness of steel by .56 if single-riv- 
eted, and .70 if double-riveted ; multiply this product 
by 16,000 (safe load); then divide this last product 
by the external radius (less thickness of steel); the 
quotient will be the safe working pressure in pounds 
per square inch. 

For iron boilers, multiply the thickness of iron by 
.06 if single-riveted, and .70 if double-riveted ; mul- 
tiply this product by 10,000 (safe load) ; then divide 
this last product by the external radius (less thick- 
ness of iron); the quotient will be the safe working 
pressure in pounds per square inch. 


EXAMPLE. 


mL Mameteror, PGLlet lc. dc-es dus>s00peeazn ceulicess 42 inches. 
PEPCK CERO L SEPOIN or hou et oh ucéaasepnanacasdiocesee 3 as 


2)42 
21 external radius. 
375 
20.625 internal radius. 
Thickness of iron $ = .875 
__.56 single-riveted. 
2250 
1875 
21000 
10000 safe load. 
20.625) 210000000 (pressure. 


101.81 pounds safe working 








116 USE AND ABUSE OF 


In the foregoing rule, 50,000 pounds per square inch 
is taken as the tensile strength of boiler-iron, and one- 
fifth of that, or 10,000, as the safe load. Hence five 
times the safe working pressure, or 50,000 pounds, 
would be the bursting pressure. The ultimate 
strength and safe working strength of boiler-plate of 
every thickness are well understood by intelligent 
mechanics, as eminent engineers in this country and 
in other countries have made the subject of iron under 
different circumstances a study ; they have tested its 
strength under different degrees of heat ; * they have 
_ tested it when riveted, in order to ascertain what re- 
sistance it has to withstand tensile strain; they have 
tested it in relation to its quality, and from these ex- 
periments certain data are obtained, on which calcu- 
lations are founded, the results of which, in practice, 
are not only reckless, but criminal to disregard. 

To ascertain the strain per square inch of sectional 
area to which boilers are subjected under working 
pressures, we must know the diameter of the boiler, 
the thickness of the iron of which it is constructed, 
and the pressure per square inch of steam as shown 
on the gauge; then by multiplying the surface of the 
plate required for one square inch of sectional area 
by the pressure of steam in pounds, multiplying 
result by the diameter of the boiler in inches, and 
dividing by 2, we get the strain per square inch of 


* See Tables on pages 326, 327. 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 117 


sectional area to which the boiler is subjected. The 
surface of boiler-plate required for one square inch 
of sectional area will depend upon the thickness of 
plate ; thus, iron + inch thick will require 4 superficial 
inches to make one square inch of sectional area; 
iron 4 inch thick will require 2; iron ¢ inch thick 


will require 2.66, and so on. 


Rule for finding the Pressure per square inch of 
Sectional Area on the Crown-Sheets of Steam-Boilers. 


Multiply the width of the crown-sheet in inches 
by.its length in inches; multiply this product by 
the pressure of the steam in pounds per square inch 
by the gauge. 





EXAMPLE. 

Length of crown-sheet.........--scesserseenseseeers 48 inches, 
Width: Of CrowN-BUCEt)........csacceres. sacennesers 36 inches. 

36 

48 

288 

144 
1728 
Pressure per sq. in. 80 Ibs. 
2)138240 


2000)69120 Ibs. 
34.560 tons. 





118 USE AND ABUSE OF 


Rule for finding the Aggregate Strain caused by the 
Pressure of Steam on the Shells of Boilers. 


Multiply the circumference in inches by the length 
in inches ; multiply that product by the pressure in 
pounds per square inch. The result will be the ag- 
gregate pressure on the shell of the boiler. . 


EXAMPLE. 


Prmrmeter OF bollersccccacts tenes ors 42 inches. 
Circumference of boiler............ 131.9472 93" 
Length ‘of ‘boiler....c.cistciseeeae ves 10 feet, or 120 “ 
Pressure of  boiler,.......42.052:00% 125 lbs. 
TOU.0472< 120 $125 | 8 
hie. 29000 Sac ern 1,979,208 pounds, or 989 tons. 


EXPLANATION OF THE FOLLOWING TABLES. 


The horizontal column on top of the page, , 00, 
0, 1, ete., represents the number of the iron or steel. 

The decimals, in the second horizontal column, 
are equal to the fractional parts of an inch in the 
third. 

The vertical column on the left. hand side is the 
diameters of the boilers in inches. All the other 
columns represent pounds. 

Example. — 24-inch diameter, 2 steel, 289.03 
pounds per square inch. 

Example. — 40-inch diameter, 2 iron, 107.01 
pounds per square inch. 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 


TABLE 


OF SAFE INTERNAL PRESSURES FOR STEEL BOILERS. 


BIRMINGHAM WIRE 3 
GAUGE. 


ee, | 


Thickness of Steel. 


External 24 || 289.08 
Diameter, |26 | 266.13 


30 || 229.74 
32 || 215.04 
34 || 202.10 
36 || 190.638 
Lorgitudinal vi aay 
__, Seams,! 49 |! 169.90 
Single. 44 || 155.37 
Riveted. 46 || 148.50 

48 || 142.22 

50 || 186.44 

O2 |) L812 

54 || 126.19 

56 || 121.62 

58 || 117.37 

60 || 118.41 

62 || 109.71 

64 || 106.24 

66 || 102.98 

68 || 99.92 

70 97.08 

72 94.31 

74 91.74 

76 || 89.30 

| 78 || 86.99 











84.79 








275.52 
253.78 
235.18 
219.00 
205.06 
192.74 
181.82 
172.06 
163.30 
155.39 
148.21 
141.66 
135.67 
180.17 
| 125.09 
120.89 
116,04 
111.99 
108.21 
104.68 





101.37 
98.26 
95.34 
92.59 
89.99 
87.81 
85.21 
83.01 
80.91 











229.74 
211.65 
196.20 
182.85 
TRL 21 
160.95 
151.86 
1438.74 
136.44 
129.85 
123.87 
118.41 
113.41 
108.82 
104.59 
100.67 
97.08 
93.65 
90.50 
87.55 
84.79 
82.20 
79.76 
77.43 
75.29 
78.24 
71.29 
69.45 
67.70 


119 





143.23 | 
135.96 
129.06 
122.88 
by 9 
112.01 
107.29 
100.03 
98.95 
95,24 
91.81 
88.61 
85.63 
82.89 
80.28 
pyres: 
75.47 
73.29 
71.24 
69.30 
67.46 
65.72 
64.07 

















120 


BIRMINGHAM 
WIRE GAUGE. 


| Thickness 
| _ of Steel. 








In 


24 
26 
28 
30 
32 
34 


External 
Diameter. 

















USE AND ABUSE OF 


TA BL E— (Continued) 


OF SAFE INTERNAL PRESSURES FOR STEEL BOILERS. 


8 


259 
1 Full. 


‘Ibs. per 
sq. in. 


197.63 
182.13 
168.88 
157.42 
147.42 
138.60 





'|180.80 
}123.82 


117.55 


/111.40 
‘|106.71 
'|102.04 


97.74 


| 93.07 
‘| 90.15 


86.78 
83.65 
80.74 


|| 78.02 


75.49 
73.11 
70.88 
68.77 
66.79 
64.92 
63.16 
61.48 
59.90 
58.39 








4 


.238 
4 Scant 








181.18 
167.09 
154.95 
144.45 
135.29 
127.22 
120.05 
113.65 
107.90 
102.71 
97.99 
93.68 
89.74 
86.11 
82.77 
79.68 
76.09 
74.14 
71.62 
69,32 
67.138 
65.09 
63.16 
61.28 
59.76 
58.00 
56.47 
55.01 
53.63 








5 


220 
32 








167.33 
154.24 
143.04 
133.36 
124.91 
117.47 
110.86 
104.96 

99.65 

94.85 
90.50 
86.53 
82.89 
79.54 
76.46 
73.60 
70.95 
68.49 
66.19 
64,04 
62.02 
60.18 
58.35 
56.67 
55.09 
53.59 
52.17 
50.88 
49,55 








6 


.203 
of Full 








154.18 
142.13 
131.83 
122.92 
115.14 
108.28 
102.20 
96.76 
91.81 
87.45 
83.44 
79.78 
76.48 
73.85 
70.50 
67.87 
65.43 
63.16 
61.07 
59.06 
57.20 
50.45 
53.52 
52.27 
50.81 
49,48 
48.12 
46.88 
45.65 











7 


180 
aa Se’t. 








136.44 
125.80 
116.70 
108.82 
101.94 
95.88 
90.50 
85.69 
81.37 
77.46 
78.91 
70.67 
67.70 
64.97 
62.46 


60.13). 


57.97 
55.96 
54.04 
52.32 
50.68 
49.14 
47.68 
46.31 
45.02 
43.80 
42.64 
41.54 
40.50 

















8 
165 
=z Full 
124.91 
115.10 
106.85 
99.65 
93,36 
87.81 
82.89 
78.49 
74.538 
70.95 
67.70 
64.74 
62.02 
59.12 
57.22 
55.09 
53.11 
51.27 
49,55 
47.94 
46.43 
45.02 
43.69 
42.44 
41,25 
40.13 
39.07 |. 
38.06 
07.11 









BIRMINGHAM WIRE 
GAUGE. 


Thickness of Steel. 


External 2 
: 26 
Diameter. 98 


Longitudinal) 34 

Seanis,| 36 
‘Double 38 
| Riveted.| 40 
Sean 42 

Seams,| 44 
aa le 46 
ericetsa. 48 


I~ 
bo 








THE STEAM-BOILER, 


TA BL E— (Continued) 
OF SAFE INTERNAL PRESSURES FOR STEEL BOILERS, 


121 


ee | SOE 


358 


2 Scant, 


340 


age 





eee ss Oe - 








145.05 
139.99 
135,26 
130.85 
126.74 
122.83 
119.18 
115.74 
112.49 
109,42 
106.51 
108.76 
101.14 








198.69 
184.31 
175.80 
168.04 
160.94 
154.41 
148.01 
142.88 
137.61 
132.86 
128.38 
124.20 
120.27 
116.53 
113.18 
109.86 
106.78 
103.87 
101.11 

98.49 

96.01 











LOO _ USE AND ABUSE OF 


TA BL E-— (Continued) 
OF SAFE INTERNAL PRESSURES FOR STEEL BOILERS, 








ee tye ola ees Um ee MLA aay Bs Tei we 
Thickness .259 .238 .220 .208 180 .165 


of Steel. ¢ Full.|iScant] 3% |s% Full/3Se’t.|5, Full 

















fe Ibs. per 
‘|| sq. in. 
24)|247 .06 |226.62/209.16 192.72 175.63 /156.14 
26)|227.67 |208.87 |192.80 |177.66 |157.25)|143.98 
28}|211.10}198.69}178.80 |164.78|145.87 |133.57 
30|/196.78 |180.57 |166.71 |158.65 |136.03 |124.57 
32)|184.28 |169.75 |156.14/143.92/127.43 |116.70 
Pei 34//173.27|159.06]146.84/135.35|119.85|109.77 
Seams. |86||163.50|150.07 |138.58]127,75|113.13|103.61 
138)|154.73 142.07 |131.20 120.95 |107.12| 98.11 
146.94/134.88 |124.57 |114.84|101.71| 938.16 
Curvil,  |42//189.85/128.38/118.57|109.32} 96.82] 88.69 
Scams |44||183.42/122.48|113.13}104.30/ 92.39] 84.64 
Single |46|/127.55/117.10/108.16) 99.73) 88.34] 80.92 
Biveted 48)|122.18}112.17|108.61| 95.54) 84.63] 77.53 

~~ "|60}|117.24)107.64} 99.43] 91.68) 81.22) 74.41 
52}1112.69!103.48! 95.53) 88.13} 78.07) 71.53 
54||108.47| 99.60] 92.00] 84.84) 75.16) 68.86 
56|/104.56| 96.01] 88.69] 81.79] 72.46) 66.39 
58}/100.92| 92.67| 85.61) 78.95} 69.95) 64.08 
60|| 97.53} 89.56) 22.74| 76.26| 67.60] 61.60 
62|| 94.36} 86.65] 80.11] 73.17) 65.44) 59.98 
64|| 91.88] 83.98} 77.58} 71.52| 63.385) 58.04 
66]; 88.59) 81.86} 75.16} 69.32] 61.42) 56.28 
68|| 85.97] 78.95) .72.94| 67.23] 59.60] 54.61 
70|| 83.49} 76.68} 70.84| 65.384] 57.89} 53.05 
72|| 81.16] 74.53] 68.86} 68.51) 56.28) 51.56 
74|| 78.95| 72.50} 66.72} 61.78] 54.75) 50.16} 
76|| 76.86] 70 58) 65.21) 60.15| 58.80) 48.84 
78|| 74.87! 68.76} 638.52} 58.60| 51.98] 47,58 
80|} 72.99) 66.96! 61.94) 57.12} 50.62) 46.39 





‘External 
| Diameter. 


















































a = 


THE STEAM-BOILER, - 


TABLE 


123 


OF SAFE INTERNAL PRESSURES FOR IRON BOILERS. 


BIRMINGHAM WIRE 3 
GAUGE. 


' Thickness of Iron.|| -375 


308 


a Scant. 


In. 


External 24 || 180.65 
Diameter. | 26 || 166.34 


Longitudinal | 88 || 112.75 
Seams, | 40 || 107.01 








Single 42 || 101.81 
Riveted. |44 || 97.11 
46 || 92.82 

48 || 88.89 

50 |} 85.28 

521} 81.95 

54|| 78.87 

56 || 76.02 

58 || 73.36 

60 || 70.89 

62|| 68.57 

64|| 66.40 

66 || 64.37 

68)! 62.45 

70|| 60.65 

7211 58.95 

74|| 57.34 

a 00.81 

54,37 

20 Ol] 53.00] 50.57| 48011 42.32| 40.04 53.00 





51.88 
50.57 





50.56 


49.251 43.41 | 


122.63 
114.29 
107.01 
100.60 
94,92 
89.84 
85,28 
81.16 
(7.42 
74.01 
70.89 
68.02 
65.37 
62.92 
60.65 
58.54 
56.57 
54.72 
53.00 
51.88 
49.85 
48.41 
47.06 
45.78 
44.56 


48.01| 42.32 


135.75 
125.08 
115.95 
108.07 
101.20 
95.14 
89.77 
84.98 
80.67 
16.77 
73.24 
70.01 
67.06 
64.35 
61.84 
59.53 
57.38 
55.38 
53.52 
51.78 
50.15 
48.61 
47.17 
45.81 
44.53 
43.32 
42.17 
41.08 
40.04 


124 USE AND ABUSE OF 


TABL E— (Continued) 
OF SAFE INTERNAL PRESSURES FOR IRON BOILERS. 


BIRMINGHAM 
WIRE GAUGE. 3 a D 6 7 8 


Thickness of || .259 | .288 | .220 | .208 |.180 | .165 


Iron. t Full. t Scant.) 33 3yFull. 5 Se’t. #5 Full. 


























SNe ee 





In. 
External | 24 || 123.53 | 113.31 | 104.58 | 96.36 | 85.28 | 78.07 
Diameter] 26 || 113.84) 104.44] 96.40 | 88.83 
28 || 105.55! 96.85] 89.40 | 82.39 
80|| 98.39] 90.29] 83.36 | 76.83 
82|| 92.14| 84.56] 78.07] 71.96 
84] 86.64| 79.51] 73.42| 67.68 
36 || 81.75| 75.04] 69.29/ 63.88 
Long. 38 || 77.39} 71.04 
Seams. |40|| 738.47| 67.44 
Single /|42/| 69.98] 64.19 
Riveted. | 44/} 66.71] 61.24 
46|| 63.78| 58.55 
48|| 61.09] 56.09 
50|| 58.62] 53.82 
52|| 56.35| 51.74 
541| 54.24] 49.80 
56|| 52.28] .48.01! 44.3 
58 || 50.46 a 42.81 | 89.48 














60|| 48.77) 44.78 
62 || 47.18! 43.38 
64 || 45.69} 41.96 
66 || 44.80} 40.68 
68 || 42.99] 39.48 
70 || 41.75} 88.34 
72|| 40.58} 387.27 
74|| 39.48} 36.25 
76|| 38.43} 385.29 
78|| 37.44] 34.38 
80]! 36.49} 33.52 





THE STEAM-BOILER. ~ 


TA BL B — (Continued) 
OF SAFE INTERNAL PRESSURES FOR IRON BOILERS, 


BIRMINGHAM WIRE 


GAUGE. 


» Thickness of Iron. 


External 
Diameter. 


Longitudinal 
Seams, 
Double 
Riveted. 
Curvilinear 
Seams, 
Single 
Riveted. 











3 











00 
.858 





3 Scant. 





215.26 
198,23 
183.70 
171.15 
160.21 
150.58 
142.05 
134.43 
127.58 
121.40 
115.79 
110.68 
106.00 
101.70 
97.73 
94.10 
90.66 
87.49 
84.54 
81.78 
79.17 
76.78 
74.49 
72.34 
70.31 
68.39 
66.60 
64.85 
63.22 





0 


340 
r 


204.12 
187.91 
174.23 
162,35 
151.98 
142.86 
134.77 
127.55 
121.06 
115.20 
109.88 
105.03 
100.59 
96.51 
92 75 
89.27 
86.04 
83.04 
80.24 
77.63 
75.17 
72.87 
70.71 
68.67 
66.74 
64.92 
63.19 
61.56 
60.01 








1 
300 


5 
T6é 








179.49 
165.35 
153.28 
142.86 
133.76 
125.75 
118.64 
112.30 
106.60 
101.45 
96.77 
92.51 
88.61 
85.02 
81.71 
78.69 
75.81 
73.17 
70.71 
68.40 
66.25 
64.22 
62.31 
60,52 
58.82 
57.22 
55.70 
54.26 
52.90 





2 


284 
cd 
33 








169.67 
156.34 
144.94 
135.09 
126.49 
118.93 
112,23 
106.22 
100.88 
95.96 
91,55 
87.52 
83.88 
80.48 
77.31 
74.41 
71.73 
69,23 
66.90 
64.72 
62.68 
60.77 
58.96 
57.26 
55.66 
54,15 
52.71 
51.85 
50.06 





126 USE AND ABUSE OF THE STEAM-BOILER. 


TA BL E— (Continued) 
OF SAFE INTERNAL PRESSURES FOR IRON BOILERS. 


en tien hs Se) Ae ie Bet Cees 
Thickness || .259 | .288 | .220 | .203 | .180 | .165 
of Iron. || } Full. |} Scant.! 35 | 9s Full. |, Scant.| 5 Full. 
In. 
Ext’l | 24|| 154.42 | 141.64] 130.73 | 120.45 | 106.60 | 97.59 
Diam. | 26 || 142.30 | 130.54 | 120.50 |111.04| 98.21) 89.99 
28 || 131.94 | 121.06 | 111.76|102.99) 91.17 | 83.48 
112.86] 104.19} 96.03; 85.02; 77.86 
105.70| 97.59| 89.95] 79.65 | 72.94 
99.39} 91.78} 84.60] 74.91/68.61 
93.80] 86.61} 79.84] 70.71 | 64.76 
88.80] 82.00| 75.60} 66.95} 61.82 
84.380} 77.86] 71.78| 63.57 | 58.23 
80.24]. 74.11} 68.38] 60.52) 55.44 
76.56 | 70.71} 65.19| 57.75 | 52.90 
Single |46|| 79.72] 73.19| 67.60} 62.3838] 55.22|50.58 
Riv’t’d |48 || 76.87! 70.11] 64.76| 59.71! 52.90) 48.46 


Long. | 34 : 
50|| 78.28] 67.28] 62.11] 57.31| 50.77 | 46.51 


Seams, | 36 || 102.19 
Doub’e| 38 || 96.74 
_ Riv’t’d |40]| 91.84 
Curvil. |42|| 87.41 
Seams, | 44|} 83.39 








64.67| 59.74} 55.08| 48.80) 44.71 
62.25] 57.51| 58.40} 46.98 | 43.04 
60.01 | 55.44) 51.12} 45.29) 41.50 
57.92| 53.51| 49.385| 48.72 | 40.06 
50.98} 51.71| 47.69| 42.25) 38.71 
54.16] 50.03) 46.14) 40.88 | 37.46 
52.45| 48.46] 44.69} 39.60 | 36.28 
50.85} 46.98] 43.33] 38.39| 35.18 
49.35| 45.59} 42.05| 37.26|34.14 
47.93| 44.28| 40.84) 86.19] 33.16 
46.59} 43.04] 39.70} 35.18 | 32.23 
45.382} 41.87) 88.62} 84.22] 31.36 
44.11] 40.76| 387.60] 33.32) 30.53 
42.98} 39.71| 36.63] 32.46 | 29.74 
41.90] 38.71| 35.71| 31.64] 28.99 


“i HE tmportance of a correct Safety-valve 

‘ can hardly be over-estimated, and it is 
the duty of every man owning a Steam-botler 
to see that this important adjunct is well 
proportioned and always in good condition. 
The Safety-valve should only be regarded as 
a means of safety when well proportioned, 
well constructed, and well cared for after 
being put in use. 

127 


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M. 128 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 129 


THE ROGER’S AND BLACK BOILER. . 


The cut on opposite page represents the Roger’s and 
Black Boiler. It consists of a cylindrical shell, sus- 
pended vertically by four wrought-iron brackets or 
knees, placed equidistant near the top of the shell, 
which rests upon the brick casing of the boiler. 
The shell is invested with two lengths of external 
circulating tubes of two inches diameter. The pro- 
ducts of combustion pass up the outside of the shell 
around the outside tubes, thence up through the 
tubes in‘the drum to the upper part of the out- 
side shell to the stack. This boiler possesses no ad- 
vantages over any of the ordinary forms of wrought- 
iron boilers except in compactness and economy of 
space. It has the disadvantage of a large shell 
and convex crown-sheet directly over the fire, which 
forms a receptacle for all the deposits in the feed- 
water, rendering it liable to be over-heated or 
burned through. The cylindrical shell is consider- 
ably weakened in consequence of the perforations to 
receive the tubes. 


SELECTION OF STEAM-BOILERS. 


Every boiler should be selected with a view to 
meet the particular purpose for which it is to be 
employed, and all the circumstances connected with 


its use, such as locatioi, pressure, character of the 
i 


130 USE AND ABUSE OF 


water, quality of the fuel, &c., should be duly con- 
sidered. Some boilers should have small steam and 
water room, and at the same time possess great 
strength and be capable of generating steam very 
rapidly ; while in others the reverse of these condi- 
tions is more desirable. In cases where fuel is abun- 
dant and of little value, the character of the boiler 
makes very little difference, provided it possess suffi- 
cient strength and afford ample facilities for cleaning, 
repairs, or renewal of any of its parts; while on the 
other hand, in locations where fuel is scarce, the 
boiler that will give the most economical results with - 
the smallest quantity of fuel is the most desirable. 
There are thousands of boilers put in use every 
year totally unfit for the location and purposes for 
~ which they are employed, that would answer very 
weli under other circumstances. There are also 
thousands of. boilers now in use that possess poor 
steaming qualities, and on account of defects of de- 
sign are weak and dangerous, and not at all durable, 
as they afford no opportunity for cleaning or repairs, 
while others require special tools to repair them, 
thereby incurring loss both in expense and time. 
Such boilers must ever have a narrow limit of use- 
fulness ; while those possessing strength, simplicity of 
design and construction, capable of being managed 
with ordinary care, affording the best facilities for 
cleaning and repairing, offering the most resistance 
- to the destructive effects of the chemicals both in the 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 131 


water and fuel, and being capable of being set up al- 
most any place and used under almost every circum- 
stance, must ever have the widest field of usefulness 
and be the most reliable and satisfactory to steam- 
users. or this reason there is not a shade of doubt 
that the old-fashioned wrought-iron cylinder, flue, and 
tubular boilers will ever be superseded by any others. 


PULSATION IN STEAM-BOILERS. 


Pulsation in steam-boilers, though not discernible 
-_ to the eye, as in animated nature, goes on intermit- 
tently in some boilers whenever they are in use. It 
is induced by weakness and want of capacity in the 
boiler to supply the necessary quantity of steam, and 
sometimes is caused by the boiler being badly de- 
signed, thereby admitting of a great disproportion 
between the heating-surface and steam-room. Boil- 
ers are frequently found in factories that were 
originally not more than of sufficient capacity to 
furnish the necessary quantity of steam, but, as 
business increased, it became necessary to increase 
the pressure, and also the speed of the engine, or, 
‘perhaps, to replace it with a larger one, which has 
to be supplied with steam from the same boiler. 
The result is, each time the valve opens to admit 
steam to the cylinder, about one-third of the whole 
quantity in the boiler is admitted, thus lowering the 
pressure; the next instant, under the influence of 


LS USE AND ABUSE OF 


hard firing, or, perhaps, a forced draught, the steam 
is brought to the former pressure, and so on; this 
lessening and increasing the pressure continues while 
the engine is in motion, which has an effect on the 
boiler similar to the breathing of an animal. 

The strains induced by this pulsation are trans- 
mitted to the weakest places, viz., the line of the 
rivet-holes, and that marked by the tool in the pro- 
cess of calking; the result is, the plate is broken 
in two, as shown in the following cut. The manner 
in which the break takes place may be illustrated by 
filing a small nick, or drilling a small hole, in a 








rim 


il mts v Hi Hm 
ATA 


piece of hoop or band-iron,.and then bending back 
and forth, when it will be discovered that the mate- 
rial will break just at that point, however slight the 
nick or small the hole may be. Pulsation is fre- 
quently very severe in the boilers of tug-boats when 
commencing to start a heavy tow, and also in loco- 
motives when starting long trains. Some frightful 





THE STEAM-BOILER. é 133 


explosions of the boilers of tug-boats and locomotives 
have occurred under such circumstances. Pulsation, 
if permitted to continue, is sure to effect the destruc- 
tion of the boiler. It is always made manifest by 
the vibrations of the pointers on steam-gauges, or an 
-unsteadiness in. the mercury column. It may be 
remedied, to a certain extent, by adding a larger 
steam-dome, but this has a tendency to weaken the 
boiler, and render it more unsafe. The only sure 
preventive of such a silent and destructive agent is 
to have the boiler of sufficient capacity in the first 
place. 


PIERCE’S ROTARY TUBULAR BOILER. 


This boiler is entirely encased in brickwork, 
and is supported upon trunnions at each end, in 
such a manner that it is rotated by a gear, actuated 
by the’ steam-pump, which supplies the boiler with 
water, or other motor power. The boiler is, at all 
times, one-quarter full of water, which amount is— 
unchangeable, being regulated by an automatic feed- 
‘water regulator. The feed-water is introduced 
through one trunnion, and the steam withdrawn 
through the opposite one. The grate has an area 
equal to the entire inner base of the brickwork sur- 
rounding the boiler. The flame and heated gases 
arising from the grate completely surround the 


boiler, thence pass through the outer row of tubes 
12 - 


br Oa USE AND ABUSE OF 


to the opposite end, and emerge into a chamber, 
thence returning through the inner or superheating 
row of tubes, en route to the stack or chimney. The 
constant and thorough circulation of the water, it is 
claimed, facilitates an easy escape of the steam, and 
prevents foaming, while the passage of the steam 


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PIERCE'S ROTARY TUBULAR BOILER, 


over and among the superheating tubes raises its 
temperature sufficiently to allow of considerable 
expansion ; nevertheless there is some exaggeration 
in this respect, as it is difficult to see what advan- 
tage can be gained by such an arrangement. In 
the first. place, it is complicated, and expensive to 
build; besides, it requires power to work it, and, as 





THE STEAM-BOILER, 185 


the mud and deposit are kept in continual agitation, 
it has a tendency to pass over with the steam, and » 
destroy the piston, cylinder, valve-faces, and seats. 


LOCATION OF STEAM-BOILERS. 


No class of machines are oftener injudiciously 
located, or show by their location a greater disregard 
for the convenience and comfort of those who tend 
them than steam-boilers. It is quite common to find 
boilers stowed away in dark, damp, and out-of-the- 
way places, although there may be an abundance of 
unoccupied room in the same establishment; and 
also to find boilers so situated that it is utterly im- 
possible to examine or repair them, and very difficult 
and laborious to fire them. Even in many instances 
where boilers are located in light and airy places, they 
are sunk several feet below the surface of the ground 
on which they ought to stand, although there may 
be thousands of cubic feet of unoccupied space above 
them. Such ignorance and recklessness can only be 
accounted for by the fact that for years an idea has 
generally prevailed among owners of steam-boilers 
that any location or out-of-the-way place was good 
enough for a steam-boiler, and that any kind of care, 
after it was located, was sufficient to manage it. 

In one instance in Philadelphia the proprietor of 
a factory located his boiler in a passageway of about 
four feet between two buildings, and walled it in 


136 USE AND ABUSE OF 


front and rear, covering the top with iron girders 
and heavy flagging stones. Although the engineer 
was there seven years, he never cleaned the flues, as 
there was no arrangement made for doing so when 
the boiler was set. He never saw the safety-valve, 
and when asked if he knew where it was, said, “ he 
supposed it was up under them flags, as he heard a 
hissing and snorting up there sometimes.” 

In another instance, the owner of a steam-boiler 
placed it in a coal vault, under a sidewalk, and 
walled it in between solid masonry. After it had 
been two years in use he was asked if he had a good 
safety-valve on his boiler, and he answered that he 
did not know, as he never saw it; and when asked if 
he knew whether there was any at all or not, he an- 
~swered no. He remembered that the man who built 
his boiler asked him if he wanted a safety-valve, and’ 
he told him that he did. Some day he would try to 
find out, and if there was not any on he would make 
the boiler-maker return the price of the safety-valve. 

In another case in a hotel, where there was a large 
roomy basement 40 x 60 feet, and very high between 
the floor and the ceiling, the boiler was placed in 
a hole in one corner, five feet below the level of 
the floor. The fire-room was made 8x4 feet, and 
when the engineer or fireman cleaned or replen- 
ished his fire he had to stand on perhaps a ton 
of coal in that hole. On one occasion, when a cap 
blew off one of the steam-pipes, the engineer, in 


——  —— - 
7 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 137 


attempting to escape, was scalded to death, which 
was caused by an old ladder that was used for ascend- 
ing and descending into the hole breaking under him. 

Another case occurred in a large safe factory, 
The boiler was placed. crosswise in the cellar, and 
was just three feet shorter than the building and 
about four feet below the level of the floor. The en- 
gine then was set directly against the side of the 
boiler, and when the engineer stopped or started his 
engine he had to go up two or three steps and stand 
on top of the boiler. The flues of the boiler were 
only cleaned twice in ten years. 

Another instance was that of a planing-mill, where 
four cylinder boilers were buried in the ground in 
the yard, without any shed over them, so that the 
top of the brickwork extended about one foot above 
the surface of the ground. The top of the boilers 
was a receptacle for all kinds of refuse material, and 
finally the keeper of a large livery stable next door 
commenced to pile his horse-manure on top of the 
boilers, the owner of which thought it was a very 
good arrangement, as the heat arising from the ma- 
nure would be apt to make a great saving in fuel for 
him jn the course of the year. 

Another instance was where four large flue boilers 
were placed in a basement between four solid walls, 
and the top covered over with brick arches, resting 
on iron girders, not more than fifteen inches above 
the shells of the boilers. The coal was run down 

12* 


138 USE AND ABUSE OF 


into the fire-room through a circular hole, twenty 
inches in diameter, and the ashes had to be lifted 
through the same hole in an ordinary water-bucket 
attached to a rope. In this case there was a fine © 
yard directly over the boilers that was only occupied 
by old barrel hoops and broken package boxes. 

Another was the case of a boiler in a glass factory, 
which was sunk in the ground four feet below the 
level of the water in the creek on which the works 
were located. Every time the engine was stopped 
the water flowed in, filling the boiler-room, putting 
out the fire, and sometimes submerging the boiler, 
and although an intelligent bricklayer offered to 
remedy the difficulty for twelve dollars, the proprietor 
declined. He preferred to pay twenty-five dollars 
for a bilge-pump to pump out the water by hand 
every morning before the engine was started. 

Such blunders as these might be enumerated 
sufficiently to make a good-sized volume, but it is 
unnecessary, as the foregoing will be sufficient to 
show the unpardonable errors that were made in 
connection with steam-boiler engineering. 


THE HARRISON BOILER. 


This boiler consists of sections or hollow cast-iron 
grooves, connected together, and communicating 
freely with each other. This form combines the 
greatest strength with the least weight of material ; 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 139 





but the capacity of the spheres is so limited that 
they soon become choked with deposit, which in- 
duces leakage, and necessitates their renewal. It 
may be said to be more safe from explosion than 





















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THE HARRISON SECTIONAL BOILER, 


any other sectional boiler in use; but it is unfit to 
stand hard firing, or where it has to be taxed to its 
utmost capacity. It is better adapted to the purpose 
of heating buildings, or where a very low pressure 
will answer. 


BOILER-FLUES. 


The well-established law that the strength of 
cylinders is inversely as their diameters, and the 
hitherto undisputed axiom among practical engi- 


140 USE AND ABUSE OF 


neers, that cylindrical tubes or boiler-flues, when 
subjected to uniform external pressure, were equally” 
strong in every part, regardless of length, led to 
erroneous opinions regarding the strength of boiler- 
flues. For flues to collapse, under the ordinary 
working pressure of steam in what was supposed to 
be properly-proportioned and well-made boilers, was 
formerly not an unusual occurrence; and, although | 
many theories were advanced on the subject, it was 
not until the celebrated English engineer, William 
Fairbairn, made an extensive set of experiments on 
the strength of tubes of various diameters, lengths, 
and thicknesses of material, that the real cause of 
the weakness of boiler-flues was revealed. 

These experiments were made by hydrostatic 
pressure, applied both externally and internally, to 
test the strength under ordinary conditions of prac- 
tice, and they proved conclusively that the strength 
of flues exposed to external pressure, as ordinarily 
used, is inversely as the length ; that is,a flue twenty 
feet long will collapse with just half the pressure of 
a flue ten feet long, everything else being equal; in 
other words, a flue twenty feet long, which would 
_ bear a pressure of ninety pounds per square inch, if 
shortened to ten feet, or, what is the same thing in 
effect, if it be hooped in the middle of its length by 
T-iron, will then bear a much higher pressure. 
Although it had long been established that a circle 
is the strongest possible form that can be made, and 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 141 


that no deviation from it can be made without re- 
duction of strength, yet it was not previously known 
that a nine-inch diameter of tube was reduced in 
strength more than one-third by deviating from the 
shape of a circle only sufficient to make a lap-joint, 
the ratio being as seven to ten, so proved by actual 
tests. 

When pressure is exerted within a tube or cylin- 
der, with spherical ends, the tube can only give way 
_ by the metal being torn asunder; and the tendency 
of the strain is to cause the tube to assume the true 
cylindrical figure, or spherical form—the form ot 
greatest resistance. With pressure exerted on the 
outside of a tube, the tendency of that pressure is te 
crush in the tube—to flatten it. It is well known 
that iron of any strength, when formed into a tube, 
will bear a much greater strain to tear it asunder, if 
that pressure be applied wternadly, than it will bear - 
without crushing in when applied eaternally. A 
bar of iron, when used as a tie-rod, will resist a very 
large amount of tearing force; but that same bar, 
placed as a prop only, under the weight exerted in 
the former case, would be doubled up and crushed 
out of form. The inner tubes of boilers are nothing 
more nor less than a series of props, as they have to 
sustain the immense weight of the pressure exerted 
externally on their diameter. The constant and 
never-ceasing tendency is for those props to give 
way — for the cylindrical tube to depart from the 


142 USE AND ABUSE OF 


form of greatest resistance, to become flattened or . 
bulged, and ultimately crushed in. The foregoing 
conclusions show the imperative necessity of adhering 
to the true circle for boiler-flues, more especially 
where high-pressure steam is used. 


Rule for finding the Safe External Pressure on 
Boiler-Flues.— Multiply the square of the thickness 
of the iron by the constant whole number, 806,300 ; 
divide this product by the diameter of the flues in 
inches; divide the quotient by the length of the flue 
in feet; divide this quotient by 5. The result will 
be the safe working pressure. 





EXAMPLE. 
Diameter, 13 inches. Length, 10 feet. 
Thickness, ~ of an inch. 13 diameter. 
_10 length. 
$X8 =r ye nee 
= 
390 
7256700 7256700 
9 £ — ausaree = —_—__ = 
ez X< 806,300= 64 + 390= 24960 = 290.73 safe 


external pressure. “ 


THE STEAM-BOILER, 343 


eA be 


OF SQUARES OF THICKNESSES OF IRON, AND CONSTANT NUM- 
BERS TO BE USED IN FINDING THE SAFE EXTERNAL PRESS- 
URE FOR BOILER FLUES, 

Birmingham 
Gauge. 
ee 375 & 875 X 806,300 = 113,385.937500 
OO vetace 308 X .358 & 806,300 = 103,338.633200 
ere 340 * .340 806,300 = 93,208.280000 
Lina: 300  .800 & 806,300 = 72,567.000000 
Boake & 284 & .284 & 806,300 = 65,032.932800 
HR se 259 & .259 & 806,300 = 54,087.410300 
AL sewed 238 & .288 & 806,300 = 45,672.057200 
Bikcee 220 & .220 & 806,300 = 39,024.920000 
Gativen 203 X .203 & 806,300 = 38,226.816700 
is Pee 180 & .180 & 806,300 = 26,124.120000 
Bi esis 165 & .165 & 806,300 = 21,951.517500 


3 
8 


Explanation.— The column on the left-hand side 
of the page, %, 00, 0, 1, etc., represents the number 
of the boiler iron according to the Birmingham wire 
gauge; the second and third columns, .375, .358, ete., 
represent the decimal parts of an inch, the inch being 
taken as 10,000, which columns being multiplied 
together give the square of the thickness of the iron ; 
the fourth column represents the constant number 
806,300, by which we multiply the several squares 
of the thicknesses; the fifth column represents the 
several products. 


144 





USE AND ABUSE OF 




































TABLE 
OF SAFE WORKING EXTERNAL PRESSURES ON FLUES 10 
FEET LONG. 
N' 
wamcauer,|| 00; 449 1 2 
Pees OeO ere |: /Bb8e 14340 ht \BOO Ot aed 
Diam. in In. wih ares Pay 

6 629.92 574.10 | 517.82 | 403.15 | 361.29 
7 539.93 492.08 | 443.85 | 345.56 | 313.96 
8 472.44 430.58 | 388.37 | 302.36 | 270.97 
9 419.95 382.74 | 345.22 | 273.95 | 240.86 
10 377.95 344,46 | 310.69 | 241.89 | 216.78 
1] 343.59 313.15 | 282.45 | 219.56 | 199.80 
12 314.12 287.05 | 258.91 | 201.58 | 180.65 
13 290.73 264.97 | 238.99 | 186.07 | 166.75 
14 269.97 246.04 | 221.92 | 172.78 | 154.84 
15 201.97 229.64 | 207.13 | 161.26 | 144.51 
16 236.22 215.28 | 194.18 | 151.18 | 135.49 
17 222.33 202.62 | 182.76 | 142.28 | 125.06 
18 209.97 191.18 | 172.61 | 134.38 | 120.43 
19 198.92 181.12 | 163.52 | 127.72 | 114.09 
20 188.98 172.23 | 155.85 | 12095 | 108.39 
21 179.98 164.02 | 147.95 | 115.19 | 103,23 
22 170.28 156.57 | 141.23 | 109.95 | 98.53 
23 164.33 149.76 | 135.08 | 105.17 | 94.25 
24 157.48 143.53 | 129.46 | 100.79 | 90.32 
25 161.18 137.78 | 124:28 | 96.76 | 86.71 
26 145.37 132.79 | 119.50 | 93.03 | 83.37 
27 139.98 127.58 | 115.07 | 89.58 | 80.28 
28 134.98 123.02 | 110.96 | 86.39 | 77.42 
29 130.33 118.79 | 107.14 | 83.41 | 74:75 
30 125.98 114.82 | 103.56 | 80.63 | 72.25 
32 118.11 107.65 | 97.09 | 75.55 | 67.74 
34 111.16 101.381 | 91.88 | 71.14 | 63.75 
36 104.99 95.68 | 86.30 | 67.19 | 60.21 
38 99.46 90.65 | 81.76 | 63.65 | 57.04 
A) 94.49 86.11 | 77.67 | 60.47} 54.19 
42 89.99 82.00 | 73.97 | 57.59 | 51.61 








THE STEAM-BOILER,. 145 


TABL E— (Continued) 
OF SAFE WORKING EXTERNAL PRESSURES ON FLUES 10 


















































FEET LONG. 
| 
wancavce.|| 8 4 Th Sate a ay ane tt 
Tinerness|' 959 | .238 | 220 | 208 | 180 | .165 
Diam. in In. 

300.49 | 253.73 |216.81 |184.59 |145,14 |121.95 

7 || 257.56 | 217.49 |185.83 158.22 |124.40 |104.53 

8 || 225.36 | 190.30 |162.60 |138.45 |108.85 | 91.46 

9 || 200.82 | 169.16 |140.83 |123.06 | 96.76 | 81.30 
10 — || 180.29 | 152.24 130.08 110.76 | 87.08 | 73.17 
Dae 163.90 | 138.40 |118.26 |100.69! 79.16 | 66.51 
12 || 150.24 | 126.87 |108.40| 92.30| 72.56| 60.97 
13 || 138.69 | 117.11 [100.06 | 85.20] 66.98 | 56.28 
14 ‘|| 128.78 | 108.74 | 92.92) 79.11! 62.20] 52.26 
15 || 120.19 | 101.49 | 86.72| 73.83] 58.05| 48.78 
16 || 11268 | 95.15 | 81.30| 69.22| 54.42| 46.10 
17 |] 106.05 | 89.55 | 76.51| 65.15| 51.22] 43.04 
18 || 100.16 | 84.58 | 72.26) 61.53] 48.37] 40.65 
19 94.89 | 80.13 | 68.46 | 58.29] 45.83] 38.51 
20 90.15 | 76.12 | 65.04| 55.37 | 43.54| 36.58 
21 85.85 | 72.49 | 61.92] 52.74| 41.46) 34.84 
29 81.95 | 69.20 | 59.12] 50.34] 39.58| 33.25 
23 78.38 | 66.19 | 56.55| 48.15| 37.86} 31.81 
24 75.12 | 62.43 | 5420] 46.14) 36.28| 30.48 
25 72.11 | 60.89 | 52.11 | 44.30| 34.83| 29.26 
26 69.34 | 58.55 | 50.03 | 42.59} 33.49] 28.91 
27 66.77 | 56.38 | 48.17 | 41.02| 32.25! 27.10 
28 64.38 | 64.37 | 46.45| 39.55] 31.10) 26.13 
29 “62.16 | 52.49 | 44.85| 38.19| 30.02] 25.28 
30 60.09 | 50.74 | 43.36 | 36.91} 29.02) 24.39 
32 56.34 | 47.57 | 40.65| 34.61} 27.21) 22.86 
34 53.02 | 44.77 | 38.25 | 32.57 | 25.61} 21.52 
36 50.08 | 42.38 | 36.13] 30.76| 24.18; 20.32 
38 47.44 | 40.06 | 34.23} 29.14] 22.91! 19.25 
40 45.07 | 38.06 | 32.52] 27.68 | 21.77 | 18.29 
30.97 20.73 | 17.42 











too K 


146 USE AND ABUSE OF 


TABL E— (Continued) 
OF SAFE WORKING EXTERNAL PRESSURES ON FLUES 20 



































































FEET LONG. 
aM Gaver. 8 00 0 1 a 
PAICEDEES)| 376), | BBS jckveag Neen00 Aeon 
Diam. in In. : es Pf yoy: 
814.96 | 287.05 | 258.91 | 201.58 | 180.65 
7 269.97 | 246.04 | 221.93 | 172.78 | 156.98 
8 236.22 | 215.29 | 194.18 | 151.18 | 135.49 
9 209.97 | 191.37 | 172.61 | 136,98 | 120.43 
10 188.98 | 172.23 | 155.35 | 120.95 | 108.3 
1 171.80 | 156.57 | 141.26 | 109.78 | 99.90 
12 157.06 | 143.53 | 129.46 | 100.79 | 90.32 
13 || 145.37 | 132.49 | 119.50 | 93.03 | 83.38 
14 134.98 | 123.02 | 110.96 | 86.39 |. 77.42 
15 125.98 | 114.78 | 103.56 | 80.63 | 72.26 
16 118.11 | 107.64] 97.09 | 75.59 | 67.74 
17 111.16 | 101.31 | 91.38 | 71.14] 6253 
18 104.99 | 95.59} 86.31 | 67.19 | 60.22 
19 99.46 | 90.56 | 81.76 | 63.86 | . 57.05 
20 94.49 | 86.12 | 77.68 | 60.47 | 54.19 
21 89.99 | 82.01 | 73.98 | 57.59 | 51.61 
22 85.14 | 78.29] 70.62) 54.98 | 49.27 
23 82.16 | 74.88 | 67.54 52.58 | 47.18 
24 78.74 | 71.76 | 64.73 | 50.39 | 45.16 
25 75.59 | + 68,89} 6214] 48.38 | 43.36 
26 72.68 | 66.54 | 59.75 | 46.52 | 41.68 
27 69.99 | 63.79] 57.54) 44.59 | 40.14 
28 67.49 | 61.51 | 55.48 
29 65.17 | 59.39 | 53.57 
30 62.99 | 57.42] 51.78 
32 59.06 | 53.82 | 48.55 
34 55.58 | 50.66 | 45.69 
36 52.50 || 47.84 | 43.15 
38 49.73 | 45.38 | 40.88 
47.24 | 43.05 | 38.83 
44.99 | 41.00 | 36,98 











THE STEAM-BOILER. 147 


TA BL E—(Concluded) 
OF SAFE WORKING EXTERNAL PRESSURES ON FLUES 20 


















































FEET LONG. 
pees hes | 
G- ‘ 
uawcaucr.|| 8 ory Wetaye ea wan a te 
Thickness! 959 | .238 | .220 | 203 | .180 | .165 
Diam. in LBs 
150.25 | 126.87 |108.40 | 92.30 | 72.57 | 60.98 
en 128.78 | 108.75 | 92.92| 79.11 | 62.20 | 52.27 
8 112.68 | 95.15 | 81.30 | 69.22 | 54.43 | 45.73 
9 100.16 | 84.58 | 70.42 61.53 | 48.38 | 40.65 
10 90.15 | 76.12 | 65.04 | 55.38 | 43.54 | 36.58 
11 ‘|| 81.95 | 69.20 | 59.13 | 50.35 | 39.58 | 33.25 
12 75.12 | 63.44 | 54.20} 46.15 | 36.28 | 30.48 
18 69.35 | 58.56 | 50.03 | 42.60 | 33.49 | 28.14 
14 64.39 | 54.37 | 46.46 | 39.55 | 31.10 | 26.13 
15 60.10 | 50.75 | 43.36 | 36.91 | 29.02 | 24.39 
16 56.34 | 47.58 | 40.65 | 34.61 | 27.21 | 23.05 
17 53.03 | 44.78 | 38.25 | 32.57 | 25.61 | 21.52 
18 50.08 | 42.29 | 36.13 | 30.76 | 24.18 | 20.32 
19 47.45 | 40.07 | 34.23 | 29.14 | 22.91 | 19.25 
20 45.08 | 38.06 | 32.52 | 27.68 | 21.71 | 18.29 
21 49.93 | 36.24 | 30.96 | 26.37 | 20.73 | 17.42 
29 40.98 | 34,60 | 29.56 | 25.17 | 19.79 | 16.62 
23 39.19 | 33.09 | 28.27 | 24.07 | 18.93 | 15.90 
24 37.56 | 31.71 | 27.10| 23.07 | 18.14 | 15.24 
25 36.05 | 30.44 | 26.05 | 22.15 | 17.41 | 14.63 
26 || 34.67 | 29.27 | 25.01| 21.29 | 16.74 | 14.45 
27 33.38 | 28.19 | 24.08 | 20.51 | 16.12 | 13.55 
"28 32.19 | 27.18 | 23.22 | 19.77 | 15.55 | 13.06 
29. |] 31.08 | 26.24 | 22.42/ 19.09 | 15.01 | 12.61 
30 30.04 | 25.37 | 21.68 | 18.45 | 14.51 | 12.19 
32 28.17 | 23.78 | 20.32] 17.30 | 13.60 | 11.43 
34 26.51 | 22.38 | 19.12 | 16.28 | 12.80 | 10.76 
36 25.04 | 21.19 | 18.06 | 15.38 | 12.09 | 10.16 
38 93.72 | 20.03 | 17.11| 14.57| 1145 | 9.62 
40 22.53 | 19.03 | 16.26| 13.84 | 10.88 | 9.14 | 


1 
, 42 jf 21.06 | 18,12 | 15.48 | 138.18 | 10.36} 8.7 


148 USE AND ABUSE OF 


Rule for finding the Collapsing Pressure of Boiler- 
Flues.— Multiply the square of the thickness of the 
iron, in thirty-seconds of an inch, by the constant 
number 262.4; divide this product by the length of 
the flue in feet; divide this quotient by the diameter 
of the flue, in quarter feet, and the quotient will be 
the collapsing pressure in pounds per square inch. 











EXAMPLE, 
Diameter of flue, 24 inches. 
Length of “ 10 feet. 
Thickness of iron, # in. 
Thickness, 3 — a a 
Diam. 24 in. = 8 quarter ft. 144 
262.4 
576 
288 
§64 
288 
10)37785.6 
8)3778.56 


472.32 pounds. 


Explanation of the following Tables of Collapsing 
Pressures.— The outside vertical column on the 
left-hand side of the table gives the length of the 
flue in feet; the horizontal column at the top of the 
table gives the diameter of the flue in inches. All 
the other columns denote the collapsing pressures in 
pounds per square inch. 


149 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 








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151 


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HE Steam-sauége, like the Safety-valve, is 

a means of indicating the approach of 
danger; though a silent, it is no less an im- 
pressive, monitor.- It does not speak, but by 
moving its steady hand on the face of the 
dial, it “points” to the danger. With a 
Sood safety-valve, good gauge-cocks, correct 
steam-Sauge, competent inspection and care- 
ful attendance, there need be little fear of 


steam-boiler explosions. 
153 


154 USE AND ABUSE OF 


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THE SHAPLEY BOILER. 


This boiler is vertical, in two cylindrical sections, 
both being connected by a horizontal tube-sheet, 
Z. The fire-box is conical in form and is joined to 
the lower section by a tube-sheet, which is convex 
and stayed. Below the crown-sheet of the fire-box, 





J 
; 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 155 


and above the lower edge of the upper section, a 
series of 13 3-inch horizontal fire-tubes are arranged 
radically and secured to both. In the annular space 
between the fire-box and the lower section, which 
connects the two tube sheets, is secured a series of 26 
2-inch vertical fire-tubes. The annular space above 
the outlets of all these tubes is confined by a movable 
cover — made in two parts, to facilitate the cleaning 
of the tubes; and below the vertical tubes communi- 
eate with an annular space around the ash-pit in the 
base of the boiler, from which the products of combus- 
tion escape by a pipe to the chimney. The water-level 
is maintained over the crown of the fire-box, covering 
all the tubes and wetting all the fire-surface. The 
upper section has a cast head provided, with the usual 
nozzles and valves, and a fire-door frame penetrates 
the lower section to the fire-box, which latter is fitted 
with a circular grate in the usual way. These boilers 
are used entirely for portable engines. 


BOILER TUBES. 


The object of the tube, like the flue, is to transmit 
the heat to the surrounding water, and conduct the 
smoke and gases to the chimney ; but, unlike the flue, 
the tube may be filled with water and act as a pass- 
age for the circulation of liquids, while the flame 
and heat may come in contact with the outer, instead 
of the inner surfaces. In regard to their diameter, 


156 USE AND ABUSE OF 


mechanical construction, mode of attachment, etc., 
they may materially differ from flues. The resistance 
of tubes is due to their hardness ; the materials rang- 
ing in the following order — steel, iron, brass, copper. 

Iron, of late years, especially where anthracite coal 
has been used as fuel, has nearly superseded all other 
materials for tubing on account of its hardness, good 
flanging qualities, and the fact that it can be made 
lighter and still possess sufficient strength, while its 
steaming qualities are nearly equal to copper or brass. 
The failure of iron tubes may, in the majority of cases, 
be attributed to a contracted water-space, bad circu- 
lation, and the deposit of scale adhering to the outer 
surface caused by impurities in the water. 

Diameter and Arrangement of Tubes.— As re- 
gards the diameter of boiler tubes, tubes of 2 inches 
diameter, placed in vertical rows from 7 to 1 inch 
apart, have been shown to be productive of the most 
satisfactory results, as such an arrangement admits 
of an easy circulation of the water, and of the free 
escape of steam from the heating-surface to the steam- 
dome, besides giving ready access to the mud in its 
passage from the water to the bottom of the boiler; 
and also because there is much more heating-surface 
in a tube of this diameter of a given length, in pro- 
portion to the space it occupies, than in a larger one. 
Thus a tube 2 inches in diameter and 11 feet long 
has 829 square inches of surface, and one 4 inches 
in diameter has 1658 square inches, or just double the 


~ 





THE STEAM-BOILER. 157 


quantity. But the four-inch tube occupies four times 
as much space as the other, as it is twice as high and 
twice as wide. Therefore, in proportion to the space 
it occupies, the tube which is two inches in diameter 
has twice the surface of the larger one. If we com- 
pare a two-inch with an eight-inch tube, we will find 
that the former has four times as much surface, in 
proportion to its size, as the eight-inch tube. . 

Small tubes have the additional advantages that 
they may be made of thinner material, and yet have 
the same strength to resist a bursting pressure from 
within, or a collapsing pressure from without, as 
larger tubes made of thicker metal; and that the 
heat inside of a thin tube is conducted to the water 
more rapidly than it could be through a thick one. 
Tubes of less diameter than two inches are not 
economical, as they are liable to become stopped or 
choked with ashes, cinders, and pieces of unburned 
fuel. Tubes are often crowded to an injurious extent 
for the purpose of getting more surface, totally disre- 
garding the other conditions of steam-raising. Heat- 
ing-surface in the abstract is one thing, its efficiency 
is another, as the under portions of the tubes and in- 
ternal flues are almost worthless for steam-raising, 
not only on account of the difficulty which the steam 
has in escaping from the surface on one side, but also 
in consequence of the deposit of soot, ashes, and flue 
dirt, which is the rule, on the other. 


in horizontal tubes various means have been re- 
TA 3 ; 


158 USE AND ABUSE OF 


sorted to for the purpose of extracting more of the 
heat from the gases than they will yield by radiation 
or conduction through their mass, by breaking the 
current at intervals, and so bringing fresh portions 
of the gases in contact with the plates, and by giving 
them a zigzag motion; this, however, has the effect 
of impairing the draught, and, in most cases, of 
causing a reduction in the evaporative capacity of 
the boiler. In passing up through vertical tubes, 
gases act at a disadvantage for imparting their heat 
to the plates. The particles cooled by contact with 
the sides on entering, have no tendency to make way 
for those in the middle of the current that still retain 
their heat, which can therefore only be indifferently 
imparted by radiation or conduction, 

The evaporative efficiency of tubes, as before 
stated, depends on the nature, condition, and thick- 
ness of the material forming the tubes, and is propor- 
tional to the distance the heat has to traverse or to 
the thickness of the tube, and inversely to the dif- 
ference of temperature between the two surfaces. 
Assuming the gases entering a tube to be all of the 
same temperature, the particles striking against the 
upper surface must give up part of their heat, and, 
in cooling, descend by virtue of their increased 
gravity, despite the onward and upward force due to 
the momentum of the mass which opposes their de- 
scent. The hot particles immediately behind and 
beneath these will come in contact with the upper 





THE STEAM-BOILER. 159 


surface a little farther on, and so a species of con- 


vection is kept up as the gases sweep along. 

















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THE PHLEGER BOILER. 


This consists of a number of wrought-iron tubes 
nearly horizontal, connected to wrought-iron tube 
plates and set in brickwork. There are 17 bent 
tubes, 2 inches in diameter and 15 fect long, so ar- 
ranged as to form the furnace and water-grate, being 
secured at the ends to wrought-iron tube-sheets. 
There are also 68 straight tubes of the same dimen- 
sions, secured at the ends to wrought-iron tube-sheets. 
These tubes are all connected with each other and 
the steam-drum, which is 23 feet diameter and 12 
feet long, and which contains shelves for the preven- 
tion of foaming. 


160 USE AND ABUSE OF 


TABLE 


OF SUPERFICIAL AREAS OF EXTERNAL ‘SURFACES OF TUBES 
OF VARIOUS LENGTHS AND DIAMETERS IN SQUARE FEET. 


The following tables are designed to facilitate the 
calculation of the heating-surface of the tubes in 
tubular boilers, and are adapted for tubes of various 
lengths, from 8 to 16 feet, advancing by inches, and ~ 
of various diameters, from 13 to 2} inches, advancing 
by & of an inch. | 

Explanation.— The large figures at the end of the 
horizontal lines give the length of tubes in feet, and 
the small intermediate figures on the same line give 
the additional inches. The vertical column on the 
left gives the diameters of the tubes in inches. The 
numbers in the tables represent the superficial area 
of our tube in square feet, and decimal parts thereof, 
for the different lengths and diameters of tubes re- 
quired. 

Example.— Required, the heating surface of 163 
tubes, 12 inches diameter and 11 feet 10 inches long. 
Thus, having found the length (11 feet 10 inches) 
in the above-named horizontal line of figures, trace 
downwards to the line opposite the diameter (17) in 
the vertical column on the left, where will be found 
the number 5.421, being the area of the tube, and 
which being multiplied by the number of tubes (163), 
gives the total area of 883,623 square feet, thus re- 
ducing the whole process to a simple matter of mul- 
tiplication. 





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THE STEAM-BOILER. 


TABLE 


165 


OF SUPERFICIAL AREAS OF TUBES OF DIFFERENT LENGTHS 
AND DIAMETERS FROM 24 INCHES TO 3 INCHES AND FROM 
8 FEET TO 20 FEET. 














1225.224 
1319.472 
1413.720 
1507.968 
1602.216 
1696.464 
1790.712 
1884.960 

829.382 

869.055 
1036.728 
1140.400 
1244.073 
1347.746 
1451.419 








Super. 
area 
in feet. 





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tn Go Ht Gn Go bd 
SUO ROW 


9.16 
9.81 
10.47 
11.12 
11.78 
12.43 
13.09 
5.75 
6.03 
719 
C91 
8.63 
9.35 
10.07 

















1555.092 


1658.764 
1762.4387 
1738.110 
1969.783 
2073.456 

904.780 
1017.878 
1130.976 
1244.073 
1357.171 
1470.268 
1583.366 
1696.464 
1809.561 
1922.659 
2035.756 
2148.854 
2261.952 











7.06 
7.85 
8.63 
9.42 
10.21 
10.99 
11.78 
12.56 
13.35 
14.13 
14.92 
15.70 








STEAM-BOILER CONNECTIONS ANI) ATTACH- 


MENTS. 


The same apparent want of skill that is so fre- 
quently shown in the setting and location of steam- 
boilers may be observed in the arrangement of their 
connections and attachments. 
was to connect a boiler with the object for which it 


Those whose duty it 


166 USE AND ABUSE OF 


was intended, frequently proceeded without any cal- 
culation whatever as to how the work would come 
together or finish ; consequently it is nothing uncom- 
mon to see some very uncouth arrangements. Pipes 
are often used either too large or too small for the- 
purpose for which they are intended. Again, they 
are cut without any degree of accuracy, and have to 
be bent and strained to bring them together. The 
consequence is that they are subjected to an enor- 
mous strain induced by contraction and expansion, 
causing leakage, besides incurring the dangers that 
may result from a pipe or connection breaking while 
under pressure. | 

An instance of such blundering occurred in this 
city. A steam-pipe, four inches in diameter, was 
attached to a boiler in such a manner that it could 
not be connected at the other end, and, instead of 
bending it, the steam-fitter sprung it, requiring four 
men with a long lever to do so. Then, as soon as it 
was connected and the steam turned on, the strain 
induced by the expansion of the pipe forced one of 
the cast-iron connections to break. The consequence 
was the engineer was killed and five or six others 
badly scalded. Every intelligent engineer is well 
aware that the straighter and more direct a pipe is, 
for whatever purpose employed, the more satisfactory 
will be the result; and yet how common it is to see 
pipes, for the purpose of conveying water or steam, 
bent in almost every imaginable direction, and as 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 167 


many as a dozen elbows and couplings used for the 
purpose of connecting them, when by the exercise of 
ordinary skill and good judgment two or three would 
answer. | 
Such botching is a reproach on the men calling 
themselves mechanics that do it, and could find no 
reasonable excuse save in the fact that the same 
want of skill, carelessness, and recklessness is to be 
found in almost everything else connected with 
steam-boiler engineering. A. steam-fitter guaran- 
teed the owner of a steam-boiler that he would 
furnish dry steam to his engine if he would allow 
him to alter the steam-pipe, which at the time was 
very straight and direct. He altered the pipe to the 
shape of two double cranks, and instead of three 
elbows, which were used before the alteration was 
made, it became necessary to use eleven. As a result 
the steam-cylinder was continually flooded with the 
water of condensation, and the power of the engine 
so diminished that the arrangement had to be taken 
down and replaced with the straight pipe, which 
involved a great loss both in time and expense. 


GAUGE-COCKS, 


The gauge-cock is one of the most indispensable 
adjuncts of the steam-boiler. It is as important as 
the safety-valve, as, without some reliable means for 
determining the height or the level of the water in 


168 USE AND ABUSE OF THE STEAM-BOILER. 


steam-boilers, there would be no guarantee of safety, 
even under the most intelligent and careful manage- 
ment. But the advantage of the gauge-cock has 
uot always been appreciated, proof of which may be 
found in the wretched condition in 
which they are frequently found on 
boilers, It is not uncommon to find 
them leaking, covered with mud, filled 
solid with deposit from the water, or 
broken off even with the head of the 
boiler and plugged up. It might be 
reasoned that their importance to en- 
gineers, firemen, and owners of steam- 
boilers would entitle them to more care- 
ful and better treatment; but as every other attach- 
ment of the steam-boiler, as well as the boiler itself, 
has been in the past subject to neglect, abuse, and 
harsh treatment, it would be a wonder if the gauge- 
cock escaped. Gauge-cocks require frequent exam- 
ining and blowing out, but when opened it should 
not, be done with a snap, but gradually; nor should 
they be closed with a jerk or a thump. They should 
also be frequently ground on their seats for the 
purpose of making them steam- and water-tight, as 
whenever they are found leaking, or looking as if 
they were not cared for, it furnishes indisputable 
evidence that there is ignorance and mismanagement 
somewhere. | 











La 


Bhi, everything about the Boiler-room 
\ neat and clean. When water- and steam- 
Sauges are dirty and corroded, and the 
boiler-heads and furnace-doors covered with 
dirt, itis a sure sign that there is poor man- 


agement throughout the establishment. 
15 169 


170 USE AND ABUSE OF 


STEAM-GAUGES, 


The object of the steam-gauge is to indicate the 
steam pressure in the boiler, in order 
that it may not be increased far above 
that at which the boiler was origi- 
nally considered safe; and it is asa 
provision against this contingency 
that a really good gauge is a necessity 
where steam is employed, for no guide 
| at all is vastly better than a false 
one. The 1 most essential requisites of a good steam- 
gauge are, that it be accurately graduated, and that 
the material and workmanship be such that no sensi- 
ble deterioration may take place in the course of its 
ordinary use. 

The pecuniary loss arising from any considerable 
fluctuation of the pressure of steam has never been 
properly considered by the proprietors of engines. 
If steam be carried too high, the surplus will escape 
through the safety-valve, and all the fuel consumed 
to produce such excess is so much dead loss. On the 
other hand, if there be at any time too little steam, 
the engine will run too slow, and every lathe, loom, 
or other machine driven by it, will lose its speed and 
of course its effective power in the same proportion. 

A loss of one revolution in ten at once reduces the 
productive power of every machine driven by the 
engine ten per cent., and loses to the proprietor ten 





4 = : 
alley A a 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 171 


per cent. of the time of every workman employed 
to manage such machine. In short, the loss of one 
revolution in ten diminishes the productive capacity 
of the whole concern ten per cent., so long as such 
reduced rate continues; while the expenses-of con- 
ducting the shop (rent, wages, insurance, etc.,) all 
run on as if everything was in full motion. <A vari- 
ation to this amount is a matter of frequent occur- 
rence, and is, indeed, unavoidable, unless the engineer 
is afforded facilities to prevent it. 

A very littie reflection will satisfy any one that it 
must be a very small concern, indeed, in which a 
half-hour’s continuance of it would not produce a 
result more than enough to defray the cost of a very 
expensive instrument to prevent it. If the engineer, 
to avoid this loss, keeps a surplus of steam constantly 
on hand, he is constantly wasting the steam, and 
consequently fuel, thus incurring another loss, which, 
though less alarming than the first, will yet be serious, 
and render any instrument most desirable which can 
prevent it. 

it is, therefore, of great importance to the propri- 
etors of engines to have an instrument which can 
constantly indicate the pressure in the steam-boilers 
with accuracy. This would enable the engineer to 
keep his steam at a constant pressure, thus avoiding 
waste of fuel on the one hand, and the still more 
serious loss of the productive power of the shop on 
the other. An instrument, therefore, constantly 


172 USE AND ABUSE OF 


indicating the pressure of steam, reliable in its char- 
acter, and, with ordinary care, not subject to derange- 
ment, is evidently a desideratum both to the engineer 
and proprietor. The importance of such an instru- 
ment, as a preventive of explosion, and of the 
frightful consequences to life and limb, and ruinous 
pecuniary results of such disaster, is obvious on the 
slightest consideration; but the value of the instru- 
ment, in the economical results of its daily use, is by 
no means properly appreciated. 

Steam-gauges are made in various forms, but they 
may be divided into two general classes — spring and 
mercury. Thespring-gauge, in consequence of being 
cheaper, more compact and durable than the mercury- 
gauge, is more generally used on stationary and 
locomotive boilers; but it is less reliable than the 
latter — reliability being the great desideratum in a 
steam-gauge. “Every steam-gauge should be tested 
at least once a year by parties having proper facili- 
ties for doing that kind of work. They should be 
tested by the direct application of a column of 
mercury, and no reliance whatever should be placed 
upon so-called standard spring-gauges, as they are 
themselves frequently out of order. The market is 
flooded with inferior steam-gauges, as with all other 
attachments and adjuncts for the steam-boiler, and 
no manufacturer, steam-user, or engineer should 
attach a steam-gauge to any boiler unless he knows 
that it was made by manufacturers of good repute. 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 173 


GLASS WATER-GAUGES. 


The glass water-gauge may be said to be one of 
the simplest, as well as one 
of the most useful attach- 
ments of the steam-boiler, as Mi 
by it the engineer can see, at 
a glance, the level of the 
water. No other method of 
determining the height of 
water in steam-boilers can be 
‘so convenient as a well-made 
glass water-gauge. They 
have, therefore, been almost 
universally used since their ™™* 
introduction to the present 
time. It consists of a thick, 
well-annealed glass tube, con- 
nected with two valves, the lower one of which 
enters the water, and the upper the steam space of 
the boiler, by means of which the level of the water 
is indicated directly in the tube, 

Glass water-gauges require frequent blowing out, 
as the tube soon becomes discolored, and the lower, 
or water connection, is liable to be filled with mud. 
This can be done by opening the drip at the bottom 
of the gauge, and closing the water-valve, when the 
steam will rush down through the tube and remove 
any deposit that may be on the inside of the glass. 

15 * 














174 USE AND ABUSE OF 


Should it become necessary to use a swab, it must, 
in all cases, be of wood and covered with cloth, as 
the touch of any hard substance on the inside of the 
glass produces an immediate abrasion. If the end 
of the swab be dipped in acetic acid, it has the effect 
of removing all discoloration from the inside of the 
tube. The gum used for packing the steam- and 
water-ends of the tube. should be pure, without any 
cloth, so that when the gas becomes heated it may 
expand freely; care should also be taken that the 
steam- and water-valves are perfectly in line, as, if 
their centres be out of true ever so little, the expan- 
sion of the metal will cause the glass to break. 
Glass water-gauges, as a means of determining the 
level of the water in steam-boilers, are not as reli- 
able as the gauge-cock. 


THE BABCOCK AND WILCOX’S SECTIONAL 
STEAM-BOILER. 


The opposite cut represents the Babcock and 
Wilcox’s Sectional Steam-boiler, one of the best 
known, and most extensively used of all that class 
of boilers now in use; and it will be observed by the 
engraving that the tubes of this boiler are placed in 
an inclined position, so that there is a strong circu- 
lation induced through the heat applied at the more 
elevated portion, and they are connected with the . 
-steam-drum at both ends in such a way as to give 


Qe a 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 175 


free passage to the moving column of liquid. The 
choking and incrustation of the tubes -is in a great 
measure prevented by means of the mud-drum con- 
nected with their lower ends, and every part of the 
apparatus can be readily reached by a cleaning-rod, 
and thus kept in good condition. 






































pi Da, 
faa poe 


2 








The most recent improvement introduced into 
the construction of this boiler is in the joints which 
connect the several tubes together. These connec- 
tions are now made by means of steel castings, with 
expanded joints, so constructed that if a single tube 
should be injured in any way, it is very easily re- 


placed ; and, as these connections never come in con- 


tact with the flame or gases from the fire, they last. 
for an indefinite period. 


176 USE AND ABUSE OF 





SAFETY-V ALVES. 


The form and construction of this indispensable 
adjunct to the steam-boiler are of the highest impor- 
tance, not only for the preservation of life and 
property, which would, in the absence of that means 
of “safety,” be constantly jeopardized, but also to 
secure the durability of the steam-boiler itself. And 
yet, judging from the manner in which many things 
called safety-valves have been constructed of late 
years, it would appear that the true principle by 
which safety is sought to be secured by this most 
valuable adjunct is either not well understood, or is 
disregarded by many engineers and boiler-makers. 

Boiler explosions have, in many cases, occurred 
when, to all appearance, the safety-valves attached 
have been in good working order; and coroners’ 
juries have not unfrequently been puzzled, and 
sometimes guided to erroneous verdicts, by scientific 


THE STEAM-BOILER . 177 


evidence adduced before them, tending to show that 
nothing was wrong with the safety-valves, and that 
the devastating catastrophes could not have resulted 
from over-pressure, because in such case the safety- 
valve would have prevented them. 

It is supposed that a gradually increasing pressure 
can never take place if the safety-valve is rightly 
proportioned, and in good working order. Upon 
this assumption, universally acquiesced in, when 
there is no accountable cause, explosions are attrib- 
uted to the “sticking” of the valves, or to “ bent” 
valve-stems, or inoperative valve-springs. As the 
safety-valve is the sole reliance, in case of neglect or 
inattention on the part of the engineer or fireman, 
it is important to examine its mode of working 
closely. 

Safety-valves are usually provided with a spindle 
or guide-pin, attached to the under side, and passing 
through a cross-bar within the boiler, directly under 
the seating of the valve, which may be seen in the 
cut on page 176. Now, it is evident that if this 
guide-pin becomes bent from careless handling, the 
safety-valve may be rendered almost inoperative, 
and, instead of releasing the pressure at the point 
indicated, it will turn sideways, and allow only a 
small aperture for the escape of steam, and, further, 
it will not return perfectly to its seat ; hence a leaky 
valve is the result, and to overcome this difficulty 


ignorant engineers and firemen generally resort to 
M 


178 USE AND ABUSE OF 


extra weighting; and it is not uncommon to find 
double or treble the weight corresponding to the 
pressure required in the boiler. 

Another difficulty is that safety-valve levers some- 
times get bent, and the weight consequently hangs 
on one side of the true centre; this, it will be seen, 
causes the valve to rest more heavily on one side 
than on the other, and the greater the added weight 
the greater the difficulty. The seats of safety-valves 
should be examined frequently, to see that no corro- 
sion has commenced ; as valves, especially if leaky, 
become corroded, and often stick fast, so that no little 
force is required to raise them. If, when a safety- 
valve is properly weighted, it should be found leak- 
ing, do not put on extra weights, but immediately 
make an examination, and, in all probability, the 
seat or guide-pin will be found corroded, or there 
will be foreign matter between the valve and its seat. 
By taking the lever in the hand, and raising it from 
its seat a few times, any substance that may have 
kept it from its seat will be dislodged: or it may 
turn out on examination that the lever had deviated 
from some cause from a true centre. Such difficul- 
ties can be easily righted, but extra weight should 
never be added, as it only aggravates the peer 
instead of remedying it. 

When the weight of the safety-valve is set on 
the lever at safe working pressure, or at the dis- 
tance from the fulcrum necessary to maintain the 


THE sTEAM-BOILER, 179 


pressure required to work the engine, any extra 
length of lever should then be cut off, as a precau- 
tion to prevent the moving out of the weight on the 
lever, for the purpose of increasing the pressure, as, 
while the lever remains sufficiently long, the weight 
can be increased to a dangerous extent without at- 
tracting any attention ; while if the lever is cut off at 
the point at which the safe working pressure is desig- 
nated, any extra increase of pressure can only be ac- 
complished by adding more weight to the lever, which 
is tolerably sure to attract the attention of some one 
interested in the preservation of the lives and prop- 
erties of persons in the immediate vicinity. 

The bolts that form the connection between the 
lever, fulcrum, and valve-stem should be made of 
brass, in order to prevent the possibility of corrosion, 
“sticking,” or becoming magnetized, as it is termed ; 
and for the same reason the valve and seat should be 
made of two different metals. When safety-valves 
become leaky they should be taken out and reground 
‘on their seats, for which purpose pulverized glass, 
flour of emery, or the fine grit or mud from grind- 
ing-stone troughs are the most suitable material ; but 
whether they leak or not, they should be taken 
apart at least once a year and all the working parts 
cleaned, oiled, and readjusted. 

The safety-valve is designed on the assumption 
that it will rise from its seat under the statical press- 
ure in the boiler, when this pressure exceeds the ex- 


180 USE AND ABUSE OF 


terior pressure on the valve, and that it will remain 
off its seat sufficiently far to permit all the steam 
which the boiler can produce to escape around the 
edges of the valve. The problem then to be solved 
is, What amount of opening is necessary for the free 
escape of the steam from the boiler under a given 
pressure? The area of a safety-valve is generally 
determined from formulz based on the velocity of 
the flow of steam under different pressures, or upon 
the results of experiments made to ascertain the area 
necessary for the escape of all the steam a boiler 
could produce under a given pressure. But as the 
fact is now generally recognized by engineers that 
valves do not rise appreciably from their seats under 
varying pressures, it is of importance that in prac- 
tice the outlets round their edges should be greater 
than those based on theoretical considerations. 

The next point to be considered is how high any 
safety-valve will rise under the influence of a given 
pressure. This question cannot be determined theo- 
retically, but has been settled conclusively by Burg, - 
of Vienna, who made careful experiments to deter- 
mine the actual rise of safety-valves above their 
seats. His experiments show that the rise of the 
valve diminishes rapidly as the pressure increases. 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 181 


WO ACTS EEG 
SHOWING THE RISE OF SAFETY-VALVES, IN PARTS OF AN 
INCH, AT DIFFERENT PRESSURES. 





















Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. 
22 20 35 AS) a bO 60 70 
36 ts BE es 38 36 cf 











Taking ordinary safety-valves, the average rise 
for pressures from 10 to 40 pounds is about 3/5 of an 
inch, from 40 to 70 pounds about g'5, and from 70 
to 90 pounds about 73, of an inch. The following 
table gives the result of a series of experiments made 
at the Nevelty Iron-Works, New York,. for the pur- 
pose of determining the exact area of opening neces- 
sary for safety-valves, for each square foot of heating- 
surface, at different boiler pressures. 


























TABILE. 
as 22 2 ae 22 4 ss [eee 

4 SSA ies BEtS a SSH 
BS Bik v4 FF wo SS ae 
ee BaF es £8 a Aa& 
AS oes a> 228 Ae o2a 

=) 280 i) oS oO } o8o 
aa a a Aas =i aa g md 

aS | O8% a2 | O8s o3 | o8s 
Lee 7 ae Bee ics ae ae at 
22 | $282 || 228 | $888 || 222 | $888 
A < ¥ < Ay < 

0.25 | .022794 10 .005698 70 =| .001015 
0.5 021164 20 003221 80 | .000892 
1 018515 30 002244 90 | .000796 
2 014814 40 001723 100 | .000719 
3 012345 50 .001398 150 | .000481 
4 010582 60 001176 200 | .000364 
5 


j -909259 
16 


182 USE AND ABUSE OF 


TABLE 
OF COMPARISON BETWEEN EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND 
THEORETICAL FORMULA. 














Boiler Pressure, 45 Pounds. Boiler Pressure, 75 Pounds. 
Area of | Area of Area of Rea of 
: Opening | Opening . Opening pening 
Seo found by jaccording oe found by | according 
vei Experi- to ; Experi- to 
ment. | Formule. ment. | Formule. 


Sq. Feet. | Sq. Ins. | Sq. Ins. Sq. Feet. | Sq. Ins. | Sq. Ins, 
100 : 















089 09.2 aps POD 12 Ag 

200 180 LQ 200 24 24 
500 45 48 500 9 9 
1000 89 94 |} 1000 1.20 1.18 
2000 1.78 1.90 2000 2.40 2.37 

















5000 4.46 4.75 5000 6.00 5.99 


Now, if we compare the area of openings, accord- 
ing to these experiments, with Zeuner’s formula, 
which is entirely theoretical, it will be observed that 
the results from the two sources are almost identical, 
or so nearly so as not to make any very material 
difference. In the absence of any generally recog- 
nized rule, it is customary for engineers and boiler- 
makers to proportion safety-valves according to the 
heating-surface, grate-surface, or horse-power of the 
boiler. While one allows 1 inch of area of safety- 
valve to 66 square feet of heating-surface, another 
gives 1 inch area of safety-valve to every 4-horse 
power; while a third proportions his by the grate- 
surface,— it being the custom in such cases to allow 
1 inch area of safety-valve to 17 square feet of grate- 
surface. This latter proportion has been proved by 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 188 


long experience and a great number of accurate ex- 
periments, to be capable of admitting of a free escape 
of steam without allowing any material increase of 
the pressure beyond that for which the valve is 
loaded, even when the fuel is of the best quality, and 
the consumption as high as 24 pounds of coal per 
hour per square foot of grate-surface, providing, of 
course, that all the parts are in good working order. 
It is obvious, however, that no valve can act without 
a slight increase of pressure, as, in order to lift at all, 
the internal pressure must exceed the pressure due 
to the load. 

The lift of safety-valves, like all other puppet- 
valves, decreases as the pressure increases; but this 
seeming irregularity is but what might be required 
of an orifice to satisfy appearances in the flow of 
fluids, and may be explained as follows: a cubic foot 
of water generated into steam at one pound pressure 
per square inch above the atmosphere, will have a 
volume of about 1600 cubic feet. Steam at this 
pressure will flow into the atmosphere with a velocity 
of 482 feet per second. Now suppose the steam was 
generated in five minutes, or in 300 seconds, and the 
area of an orifice to permit its escape as fast as it is 
generated be required, 1600 divided by 482 x 300 
will give the area of the orifice, 13 square inches. 
If the same quantity of water be generated into steam 
at a pressure of 50 pounds above the atmosphere, it 
will possess a volume of 440 cubic feet, and will flow 


184 USE AND ABUSE OF 


into the atmosphere with a velocity of 1791 feet per 
second. The area of an orifice to allow this steam 
to escape in the same time as in the first case, may 
be found by dividing 440 by 1791 x 300, the result 
will be .; square inches, or nearly % of a square inch, 
the area required. It is evident from this that a 
much less lift of the same valve will suffice to dis- 
charge the same weight of steam under a high press- 
ure than under a low one, because the steam under 
a high pressure not only possesses a reduced volume, 
but a greatly increased velocity; it is also obvious 
from these considerations that a safety-valve, to dis- 
charge steam as fast as the boiler can generate it, 
should be proportioned for the lowest pressure. 


RULES. 


Rule for finding the Weight necessary to put on a 
Safety-valve Lever, when the Area of Valve, Pressure, 
etc., are known.— Multiply the area of valve by the 
pressure in pounds per square inch; multiply this 
product by the distance of the valve from the ful- 
crum; multiply the weight of the lever by one-half 
its length (or its centre of gravity); then multiply 
the weight of valve and stem by their distance from 
the fulerum ; add these last two products together, 
subtract their sum from the first product, and divide 
the remainder by the length of the lever: the quo- 
tient will be the weight required. 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 185 





EXAMPLE. 
Area of valve, 12 inches. 65 13 8 
Pressure, 65 pounds, 13 16 4 
Fulcrum, 4 inches. za Wa fe 
Length of lever, 32 inches. Si aa a 


Weight of lever, 13 pounds. ety pies 
Weight of valve and stem, 8 pounds, 3190 208 


240 32 
32)2880 240 
90 lbs. 


Rule for finding the Pressure per Square Inch when 
the Area of Valve, Weight of Ball, ete; are known.— 
Multiply the weight of ball by length of lever, and 
multiply the weight of lever by one-half its length 
(or its centre of gravity); then multiply the weight 
of valve and stem by their distance from the fulerum. 
Add these three products together. This sum, di- 
vided by the product of the area of valve, and its 
distance from the fulcrum, will give the pressure in 
pounds, per square inch. 


EXAMPLE, 

Area of valve, 7 inches. 50 12 6 
Fulcrum, 3 inches. 30 15 3 
Length of lever, 30 inches. BIE vid h 0 
Weight of lever, 12 pounds. cee ae i 

Weight of ball, 50 pounds. 18 EE 
Weight of valve and stem, 6 pounds. 180°. 
21)1698 3 
80.85 lbs, 21 


1 * 


186 USE AND ABUSE OF 


Rule for finding the Pressure at which a Safety-valve 
is Weighted when the Length of Lever, Weight of 
Ball, ete., are known.— Multiply the length of lever 
in inches by the weight of ball in pounds; then mul- 
tiply the area of valve by its distance from the 
fulerum ; divide the former product by the latter: 
the quotient will be the pressure in pounds per 
square inch. 


EXAMPLE. 
Length of lever, 24 inches. 52 
Weight of ball, 52 pounds. 24 


Rlow 


Fulcrum, 3 inches. 


Area of valve, 7 inches. an 


104 
91)1248 


59.42 Ibs. 


The above rule, though very simple, cannot be 
said to be exactly correct, as it does not take into 
account the weight of the lever, valve, and stem. 

Rule for finding Centre of Gravity of Taper Levers 
for Safety-valves.— Divide the length of lever by 
two (2); then divide the length of lever by six (6), 
and multiply the latter quotient by width of large 
end of lever less the width of small end, divided by 
width of large end of lever plus the width of small 
end. Subtract this product from the first quotient, 
and the remainder will be the distance in inches of 
the centre of gravity from large end of lever. 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 187 


| EXAMPLE. 

Length of lever...... PG BY BREN Ra be eR Pl 36 inches. 
Width of lever at large end.) so: teessnnescisstovesasiese a ab 
PV TOtEAGL Je Ver Ab. SMA CENG aiscaceaces <ases>besmer vdcance hae 


36 + 2=18—1.2=—16.8inch. 36+6=6kK1=6+5=1.2. 


Centre of gravity from large end, 16.8 inches, 


The safety-valve has not received that attention 
from engineers and inventors which its importance 
as a means of safety so imperatively deserves. In 
the construction of most other kinds of machinery, 
continual efforts have been made to insure accuracy ; 
while ip the case of the safety-valve, very little im- 
provement has been made either in design or fitting. 
It is difficult to see why this should be so, when it is 
known that deviations from exactness, though trifling 
in themselves, when multiplied, not only affect the 
free action and reliability of machines, but frequently 
result in serious injury, more particularly in the case 
of safety-valves. 

Safety-valves should never be made with rigid 
stems, as, in consequence of the frequent inaccu- 
racy of the other parts, the valve is prevented from 
seating, thereby causing leakage; as a remedy for 
which, through ignorance or want of skill, more 
weight is added on the lever, which has a tendency 
to bend the stem, thus rendering the valve a source 
of danger instead of a means of safety. The stem 
should, in all cases, be fitted to the valve with a ball 


188 é USE AND ABUSE OF 


and socket-joint, or a tapering stem in a straight 
hole, which will admit of sufficient vibration to 
accommodate the valve to its seat. It is also advisa- 
ble that the seats of safety-valves, or the parts that 
bear, should be as narrow as circumstances will 
permit, as the narrower the seat the less liable the 
valve is to leak, and the easier it is to repair when 
it becomes leaky. 

All compound or complicated safety-valves shouid 
be avoided, as a safety-valve is, in a certain sense, like 
a clock— any complication of its parts has a tendency to 
affect its reliability and impair its accuracy. 


WITTINGHAM’S TUBULOUS BOILER. 


This boiler, shown on opposite page, may be said 
to consist of a series of tubes, a steam- and a mud- 
drum. The tubes are placed angularly, and the two 
drums are placed horizontally and transversely to the 
tubes. There is also a water-drum, which is added 
or not, as circumstances may demand. Inside these 
tubes are others, of much smaller diameter, which 
pass entirely through the larger ones and the castings. 
These inner tubes are threaded at each end, and nuts 
on them, with faced collars, enable them to serve as 
both stay-bolts and flues, as, by screwing up the nuts, 
the outer tubes are pressed into their seats, and tight 
joints are secured. The mechanical construction 
of this boiler is of the most perfect character; it 


ee a 


THE STEAM-BOILER, : 189 










GUE LD 
1, Vitis sgt 
ZA 


Wey 
YM 






we = 
Vs = ——= 


— = 





is very durable, and keeps perfectly tight. It has 
a good reputation for efficiency, durability, and 
economy. 


FOAMING IN STEAM-BOILERS, 


‘The tendency of the water in a steam-boiler to 
rise into the cylinder is well known to engineers, and 
is generally attributed to the presence of dirt, grease, 
and other soapy substances. But it frequently arises 


190 USE AND ABUSE OF 


from a disturbance of the relation existing between 
the temperature and elasticity of the steam in the 
boiler, as, when the discharge of steam is out of pro- 
portion to the steam-room in the boiler, the high 
temperature required to generate steam with suffi- 
cient rapidity to supply the demand causes violent 
boiling, and the agitation is greater when the relation 
between the temperature and pressure is most dis- 
turbed. This is often the case with tug-boats just 
starting to tow a heavy vessel, or a locomotive starting 
a train of cars, and even with stationary boilers hay- 
ing too limited steam capacity, when a heavy piece 
of machinery is thrown on. 

The most common causes of foaming are insuffi- 
cient steam-room, foulness of boilers, excessive firing, 
and the effects produced by the intermittent action 
of the steam-valves. The supply of steam to the 
cylinder being cut off for a considerable period 
during each stroke, the effect is to throw the water 
in the boiler into a slight undulatory motion, as may 
frequently be observed in the glass water-gauge. 
Foaming in locomotive boilers is generally caused 
by impurities in water, which are confined to certain 
parts of the country known as the alkali regions; 
these impurities consist essentially of potash, soda, 
ammonia, and lithia. Locomotive boilers using sur- 
face water are also apt to foam if allowed to become 
dirty, in consequence of decayed vegetable matter 
being held in suspension in the water, such sedimen- 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 191 


tary accumulations adding to the strength of the 
ingredients above referred to. 

Foaming in marine boilers is most generally 
caused by changing the water from salt to fresh, or 
vice versa, and is made evident by the boiling up 
of the water in the glass gauge. When foaming 
arises from this cause, the water in the boiler should 
be changed as soon as possible, which can be done 
by putting on a strong feed and blowing out con- 
tinuously, or at short intervals; and it may become 
necessary to throttle down the steam, cut off short 
by the link, or even to stop the engine in order to 
ascertain the level of the water in the boilers, when 
it will frequently be found to have fallen below the 
proper level. Violent foaming can be checked by 
opening the furnace door and damper, and covering 
the fire with fresh coal; but this means of relief 
should be used as little as possible, because it has a 
tendency to injure the boiler, owing to the sudden 
contraction of the parts most exposed to the fire. 

Foaming is also inherent in some types of boilers, 
in consequence of their peculiar construction, which 
prevents a free escape of the steam from the heating- 
surface to the steam-room. Boilers with a large 


amount of heating-surface and small steam-room 


generally foam ; so also do boilers with the ordinary 
amount of steam-room, if the water be carried too 
high. Various expedients have been resorted to, 
such as perforated pipes, baffle-plates, etc., to counter- 


192 USE AND ABUSE OF 


act the dangers induced by foaming, but without 
any permanent results. Experience has shown that 
the most reliable preventives of foaming are, ample 
steam-room, good circulation, clean boilers, and 
moderate firing. All the phenomena connected with 
foaming have not yet been satisfactorily explained ; 
but, from whatever cause it may arise, it is always 
attended with a certain amount of danger, Foaming 
is sometimes confounded with priming, but they arise 
from very different ‘causes, and are productive of 
very different results. Foaming may result in per- 
manent injury to a boiler, or even induce explosions, 
while priming can only cause a waste of fuel and loss 
of power. Foaming is always made manifest by the 
violent agitation and rising and falling of the water 
in the gauge, and also the muddy appearance of the 
water, and the great quantity of particles of sediment 
contained in it that have been brought up from the | 
lower part of the boiler by the violent ebullition of 
the water. Priming may and does go on unseen, but 
it can be discovered by the white appearance of the 
steam as it issues from the exhaust-pipe ; as saturated 
steam, or steam containing water, has a white appear- 
ance and descends in the shape of mist, while dry 
steam has a bluish color, and floats away in the 
atmosphere. Priming also makes itself known by a 
clicking in the cylinder, which is caused by the 
piston striking the water against the cylinder-head 
at each end of the stroke. 


ig has been too much the custom heretofore 
for owners of Steam-boilers to disregard 
_ the advice and suggestions of their own engi- 
neers and firemen, even though men of intel- 
ligence and experience, and to be governed 
entirely by the advice of self-styled experts 
and visionary theorists. 
17 N 193 


194 USE AND ABUSE OF 


INCRUSTATION IN STEAM-BOILERS, 


All natural waters contain more or less mineral 
matter. ‘This is acquired by contact with the earth’s 
surface, and by percolation through the soil and 
rocks. It consists principally of carbonates of lime 
and magnesia, sulphate of lime, and chloride of 
sodium, in solution, and clay, sand, and vegetable 
matter, in suspension. The many other saline in- 
gredients found in various waters exist in very 
small proportions, are generally very soluble, and, 
therefore, have no relation to the utility of water in 
boilers. Of the above-mentioned salts, the carbo- 
nates of lime and magnesia are only soluble when 
the water contains free carbonic acid — consequently, 
the waters of rivers, lakes, etc., contain them in less 
quantities than those of wells, springs, and creeks, 
owing to the precipitation caused by the spontaneous 
evolution of the solvent on: exposure to air, heat, 
and light. 

Our American rivers contain from two to six 
grains of saline matter per galion, in solution, 
and a varying quantity in suspension, generally 
exceeding ten grains. Well and spring waters hold 
but little in suspension, but a quantity of the dis- 
solved salts, varying from ten to six hundred and 
fifty grains in the gallon. When such water is 
boiled, the carbonic acid is driven off, and the car- 
bonates, deprived of their solvent, are rapidly pre- 





4 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 195 


cipitated in a finely-crystallized form, tenaciously 
adherent to whatever they may first fall upon. Sul- 
phate of lime requires five hundred parts of water 
for its solution, and, as the water evaporates, super- 
saturation occurs, and the salt is precipitated in the 
same form and with the same adherent quality as 
the carbonates. Chloride of sodium, and all the 
other more soluble salts, are precipitated by the 
same process of supersaturation ; but, owing to their 
greater solubility, much more evaporation is required. 
All suspended matter gradually tends to subside. 
This combined deposit, of which the carbonate 
of lime usually forms the greater part, remains adhe- 


rent to the inner surface of the boiler, undisturbed 


by the force of the boiling currents. Gradually 
accumulating, it becomes harder and thicker, till it 
is as dense as porcelain, though tougher, and at 
length may obtain such a thickness as to prevent the 
proper heating of the water by any fire that can be 
placed in the furnace. 

The high heats sometimes necessary to heat water 
through thick scale, will sometimes convert the scale 
into absolute glass, by combining the sand with the 
alkaline salts composing it. The evil effects of the 
scale are due to the fact that it is relatively a non- 
conductor of heat. Its conducting power, compared 
with that of iron, is as 1 to 37.5. Consequently 
more fuel is required to heat water in an incrusted 
boiler than in the same boiler if clean. <A scale 75 


196 USE AND ABUSE OF 


inch thick will require the extra expenditure of 15 
per cent. more fuel. This ratio increases as the 
scale is thicker. Thus, when it is } inch, 60 per 
cent. more fuel is needed; 3 inch, 150 per cent., ete. 

Abstractly, then, to raise water in a boiler to any 
given heat, the fire-surface of that boiler must be 
heated to a temperature according with the thick- 
ness of the incrustation, in an increasing ratio. To 
illustrate: —To raise steam to a pressure of 90 
pounds, the water must be heated to about 320° F. 
In a clean boiler of + inch iron, this may be done by 
heating the external surface of the shell to about 

325°. If 5 an inch of scale intervenes between the 
~ shell and the water, such is its non-conducting power 
that it will be necessary to heat the fire-surface to 
about 700°, almost low red heat. Now, the higher the 
temperature at which iron is kept, the more rapidly 
it oxidizes, and, at any heat above 600°, it very soon 
becomes granular and brittle, and is liable to bulge, 
crack, or otherwise give way to the internal pressure. 
This condition predisposes the boiler to explosions, 
and makes necessary expensive repairs. Again, it 
is readily seen that the presence of scale renders 
slower and more difficult the raising, maintaining, 
and lowering of steam. 

To obviate the evils arising from incrustation, 
many methods have been devised, and various me- 
chanical contrivances have been introduced, in- 
tended to intercept the precipitated saline matter . 
from the supply-water on its passage through the 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 197 


heating apparatus. Straw, wood, charcoal, ete., 
have been introduced for this purpose; but such 
substances, however, only partially fulfil the pur- 
pose, since they only intercept a portion of the car- 
bonates and suspended matter. The soluble salts all 
pass on into the boiler, and a great portion of the 
dissolved carbonates also, which cannot be precipi- 
tated during the short passage through the heater. 
The scales form more slowly, but as surely. It is 
impossible to make such contrivances completely 
efficacious. No mechanical arrangement will suffice. 
Even picking, scraping, and cleaning, when it can 
be resorted to, only partially succeed. 


PREVENTION AND REMOVAL OF SCALE IN 
STEAM-BOILERS., 


The pick, scraper, and hammer have hitherto 
been the means most generally employed for the 
purpose of removing scale and deposit, and although 
such instruments are dangerous tools in the hands 
of inexperienced persons, yet they are the only 
practical means of removing hard thick scale when 
it becomes firmly attached to the crown-sheets and 
other exposed parts of the heating-surface. Another 
plan to remove scale is to produce a sudden heat by 
a train of shavings in the flues and fire-box when the 
boiler is cold; the expansion of the metal cracks the 


coating, and is supposed to remove it in sheets of 
Wis 


198 USE AND ABUSE OF 


greater or less size. This method works tolerably 
well, but cannot be relied on in all cases; it is also 
dangerous, as being liable to burn the boiler. 
Almost every engineer has his own remedy for 
removing scale, among which may be mentioned 
slippery-elm bark, flax-seed, bass-wood, oak-blocks, 
witch-hazel, pork, coal-oil, buckwheat, Indian meal, 
mahogany sawdust, molasses, with a great variety of 
galvanic batteries and anti-crustators; but, strange 
as it may seem, the solvents and batteries that pro- 
duced quite satisfactory results in some boilers totally 
fail to give any relief in others in the same neigh- 
borhood, using precisely the same water, and worked 
under similar conditions. This failure may not in 
all cases be due to the worthlessness of the article, 
but rather to the varying circumstances under which 
it is used, which include the character of the water, 
the design and construction of the boiler, the press- 
ure and temperature, care and management, with a 
great variety of other features. It is nothing un- 
common to find men engaged in the sale of anti- 
crustators, exhibiting large pieces of scale, sometimes 
two inches thick, which were removed by their 
nostrum. This only exhibits another proof of igno- 
rance on the part of the party exhibiting it, as no 
purgative, solution, battery, or anti-lamina, could 
remove such a deposit; such enormous scales can 
only be thrown off by the expansion of the plates 
to which they become attached, as when the scale — 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 199 


becomes of an extraordinary thickness, it prevents 
the water from coming in contact with the furnace 
or boiler-sheets, as the case may be; the result of 
which is that the fire on the opposite side expands 
or bulges the plate or seam to such an extent that 
these enormous chunks gf deposit are cracked or 
thrown off, and as a pir he of the claim that they 
were dislodged by the compound, powder, or battery, 
it will be found on examination that they are just 
as hard and flinty as the pieces that still adhere to 
the same plates. The question now comes up how 
could they have been dislodged, cracked, or thrown 
off by the article used for their removal, unless the 
scale was either softened in the first place, or unless 
the solvent prevented the water from coming in con- 
tact with the iron. This latter condition would 
admit of the iron being expanded to its utmost limit, 
a proceeding well known to involve very great risk. 
A very noticeable feature in connection with the 
sale of solvents, to prevent and remove scale from 
steam-boilers, is that the parties who manufacture or 
sell them set up precisely the same claims, and on 
examination of their certificates, it will be noticed 
that they all have recommendations from the same 
parties, which go to show that each one superseded 
all the rest. 

It may be stated, without any fear of contradic- 
tion, that not one of the purgatives, antilaminas, 
powders, solutions, or batteries in use will give sat- 
ixfactory results in ali cases. 


a“ 
200 USE AND ABUSE OF 


Now it must not be understood by this, that the 
writer wishes to discourage the use of solvents for 
the prevention and removal of scale; the fact is 
quite the reverse, as his own experience has been 
that some of the compounds now in use for this pur- 
pose have behaved very well. There is no mystery 
connected with the prevention of scale in steam- 
boilers, as six minerals, viz., sulphate of lime, phos- 
phate of lime, carbonate of lime, magnesia, silica, 
and alumina, form the basis of* fresh-water incrus- 
tation. 

An analysis of sea-water shows it contains the 
following ingredients in different quantities: chlo- 
ride of sodium, chloride of potassium, chloride of 
magnesium, bromide of magnesium, sulphate of 
magnesia, sulphate of lime, and carbonate of lime, 
etc., and any ingredient or compound that will neu- 
tralize these salts and prevent them from forming 
into a hard, glassy scale, until they can be blown or 
washed out, will do all that can possibly be accom- 
plished in this connection, as, while it is retained in 
the shape of soft slush, or sludge, there is not much 
danger of the plates being burned through. 

In boilers fed with water containing corrosive im- 
purities, together with matters that form a thick 
incrustation, the damage that would be done may, 
to a great extent, be prevented by using some reli- 
able solvent or compound. Catechu, nutgalls, and 
other astringents containing tannic acid, have been 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 201 


found effective in preventing and removing incrusta- 
tion. The tannic acid decomposes the lime-salts and 
forms tannate of lime, which is insoluble at first, and 
forms a scum, which should be removed by surface 
blowing off’ The remaining soluble constituents 
should also be blown off frequently, as their concen- 
tration is liable to tell severely on the iron, unless 
the acids be neutralized by some compound pur- 
posely introduced. Hemlock, oak, log-wood, bass- 
wood, and mahogany sawdust are frequently used 
for the prevention of scale with varying results, as 
the tannic acid which these woods contain has a 
tendency to mix with the scale-forming ingredients, 
to render them more light and porous, and conse-. 
quently to prevent them from forming in hard, solid 
masses; but, for want of any accurate knowledge of 
the quantity which should be introduced, they, in a 
majority of cases, fail to give any relief. 

Zinc, in different forms, is frequently used as an 
anti-crustator in steam-boilers, but its action depends 
wholly on the character of the water; if it contains 
a sufficient amount of acid, a voltaic battery is 
formed between the iron of the boiler, the zinc, and 
the acid in the water; but if the water contains no 
acid, the zinc remains inert, and has no effect what- 
ever on the scale; but it never fails to inflict per- 
manent injury on the boiler connections, pumps, and 
steam-cylinder. | 

Bat even when the most efficient solvents are 


202 USE AND ABUSE OF 


used, it is necessary, at short intervals, to remove 
the accumulations from all accessible places, by 
blowing out, washing, scraping, ete. If the water is 
allowed to remain in the boiler until cold before 
cleaning, a great portion of the accumulations may 
be removed by means of brooms and scrapers, or be 
washed out with hose; but if the boiler is blown out 
under pressure, and the scale allowed to bake on 
the surface of the different parts of the boiler, it will 
be found difficult, if not impossible, to remove it. 
As before stated, what is needed to render efh- 
cient and permanent relief is an article that will 
attack the scale, render it porous, and destroy the 
affinity between it and the iron, without any injuries 
to the latter, and will hold the minerals and ingre- 
dients, which are passing in with the feed-water, in 
the form of slush or sludge, until they can be blown 
out. G. W. Lord, a practical manufacturing chem- 
ist of Philadelphia, who has been, at various times, 
connected with many mechanical enterprises in this 
country, the West Indies, and South America, has 
succeeded, by experiment and observation, in pro- 
ducing an article— Lord’s patent boiler compound — 
which has been in use over eight years in all parts 
of the United States, Canada, South America, Mex- 
ico, and Cuba, under the most varying circumstances, 
and in all cases with satisfactory results. The man- 
ufacturer and patentee can produce more than ten 
thousand testimonials of its efficiency from engineers 





j 
: 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 203 


and steam-users. It neutralizes mine and mineral 
waters, which contain lime, iron, sulphur, and car- 
bonates, destroys their affinity, and renders them 
simple and harmless. It not only prevents the for- 
mation of new scale, but decomposes the old and 
conyerts it into a soluble sediment, which may be 
blown out every day. It contains no acid which 
has any injurious effect on the iron of the boiler, — 
evidence of which may be found in the fact that the 
manufacturer, some years ago, filled several thou- 
sand vials with a solution of his compound, in which 
were placed a quantity of bright iron: turnings and 
small pieces of steel wire, which appear as bright as 
the day they were immersed in the solution, one of 
which will be sent to any one who feels incredulous 
on the subject. Lord’s compound gives relief in all 
cases when used according to directions. Parties 
wishing to test its efficiency should address Gro, W. 
Lorp, Philadelphia, Pa. 


204 USE AND ABUSE OF 


SALTING MARINE BOILERS. 


The term “‘salting,’’ when used in relation to ma- 
rine boilers, means that, in consequence of the boilers 
not being regularly blown out, the water becomes 
saturated to such an extent as to cover the plates with 
a heavy coating of salt, which renders them liable 
to bulge, crack, and burn through, besides inducing 
a great expenditure of fuel. Salt-water, at the usual 
density, contains 34; of its weight of salt; conse- 
quently, if one pound of salt enters the boiler with 
every 32 lbs.’of water, and 16 lbs. of that water be 
evaporated, the one pound of salt remains in the 
proportion of 1:16. Again, if 4 of the 16 lbs. of 
water remains to be evaporated, the one pound re- 
mains in the 8 lbs. of water. Now, if these 8 Ibs. 
of water were blown out of the boiler, the salt would 
go with it; and so long as that proportion is carried 
out, the saturation cannot exceed {4,; from which it 
is clear that, to keep water at 34,, one-fourth must be 
blown out; one-third at 33, and at 34; one-half of 
the water used for feed must be blown out. 

The meaning of the term saturation, in its relation 
to the water of marine boilers, means the quantity 
of salt it contains per gallon. Saturation at 3) 
means 4 oz. salt to one gallon fresh water; 3, 8 
oz. salt to one gallon water; 34;, 12 oz. salt to one 
gallon water, and so on. In carrying the water at 
34, twice as much is converted into steam as is blown 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 205 


off. At 3%, the water blown off and that converted 
into steam are equal.. At ue the water converted 


into steam equals ? of the water blown off. 

The annexed table shows the method of regulat- 
ing the saturation, 600 gallons of water, which is 
supposed to contain 7200 oz. of salt, being made the 
basis of the calculation. 





in 
Gallons. | Ounces. 





600 7200 
POW OUtnce? o! serch: 200 2400 








Fed in at 3 to make| 400 4800 
up for deficiency .| 200 800 























600 5600 
200 | steam | 4 evaporated. 
400 5600 | 
PICA a5 ae on, ah OO 800 
600 6400 


200 steam | } evaporated 








400 6400 
Ped an bs) os. 6) et} 200 800 





600 7200 





The following calculation shows the loss duced 
18 


206 USE AND ABUSE OF 


by blowing off as well as the gain derived from fresh- 
water condensers, providing they are tight and the 
condensation of the steam be perfect. ‘The degrees 
of heat imparted to the water converted into steam 
are the total heat of the steam minus the degrees of 
heat in the feed-water. The heat lost by blowing 
off is the difference between the. heat of the feed- 
water and the sensible heat of the steam. 

Rule for finding the percentage of loss indnced by 
blowing off to prevent saturation. 

Multiply loss by blowing off by 100, and divide the 
product by the total degrees of heat imparted to the 
water plus the heat lost by blowing off. (Observe that 
for ,3, twice as much water is converted into steam as 


is blown off. For 33,, the amount is equal. For 13, 
, 32 


the amount is 3, and so on.) The result is the per- 
centage of loss. 

Example.—.%,. . 

Feed-water, 110°; total heat, 1193°45°; sensible 
steam, 260°. 

260° — 110° = 150° heat lost by blowing off. ° 

1193°45° — 110° = 1083°45° total heat. 

1083°45° X 2—=2166°9° + 150° = 2316°9° total heat 
imparted, and loss by blowing off. 

(150° x 100) -+ 2316°9° = 6°47 per cent. of heat 
lost by blowing off. 


THE STEAM-BOILER, 207 


TABLE 


SHOWING THE PROPORTION OF SALT IN THE WATER OF 
DIFFERENT SEAS. 








PARTS IN 1000. 


PRAATAG SHON she veleeendeles oue unas Seg rhiebeeua cisne 
PEE PAO o: geal aiin'd s caine teas Cece eR MED Mee aioe 


a British Channel ........... HRA TE RW AHS 1 eat 
PT CAULEFTANGAN SES. ocdede's deeds chusuodesdec ciiieeene 
Atlantic at Equator..........0.0+. supherensdate mre 
SUE ily LUATIEATS Ue silcoriin avon + nunavcaeaussntgenedeces 
ON OPEL GA POAINEER tet coke cy du ascbpiccdcrnce ds oduhe tebes 
FE VEL CE MEIEGA ts ea NEe ay GIN ore ba als Racca ages Mee wanes . 








TABLE 


SHOWING THE BOILING-POINT OF SALT-WATER AT THE 
DIFFERENT DEGREES OF DENSITY WHEN TARE 
BAROMETER STANDS AT 30 INCHES. 



















SATURATION, BOILING-POINT. 
Fresh-water sc} > seocssenseieces 212°?" Fah: 
Sea-water eveee as 913°2, ee 
“ oe 914°4 “c 
(a4 33 915°5 “ 
“ ed Se ae 
“ a 917°9 14 
(74 3S 2] 91 74 
« ve 9203. 
« s 9915 
si yy at Mle hey 
10 9933 
it 225:0° 
ii 2261 


USE AND ABUSE OF 


208 


/ 
s A 
er 


ae 


UZ 
<——s— 


p——— 


ae: 






















































































EXPLODED BOILER OF THE FERRY-BOAT “WESTFIELD.” 








































































































































































































=. eee 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 209 


STEAM-BOILER EXPLOSIONS. 


That the use of steam-power is fraught with 
danger is only too well known; the extent of the 
danger, however, as indicated by the number of 
boiler explosions every year, and the loss of life and 
property entailed, is but vaguely appreciated by the 
public. No official record is kept of such accidents, 
and only those of exceptional interest are reported 
in the newspapers. Even in such cases as are re- 
ported, it is almost impossible to ascertain their true 
cause, as there is seldom a unanimous opinion on 
the part of the experts who examine into the causes 
after the event; besides, there are a great many 
people who think they know something that will 
explain the cause of these fearful accidents, but, for 
some reason or other, their fine-spvn theories have 
not been of any practical value. This doubtless 
arises from the fact that the conditicos under which 
boilers are used, and the causes of their explosions, 
are very imperfectly understood by any one except 
those who have devoted time, thought, and study to 
their construction, care, and management. 

Until quite recently, boiler explosions were attrib- 
uted to one cause only, namely, an insufficiency of 
water; and this, in turn, was attributed to the care- 
lessness of the attendant who had charge of the 
boiler. The boiler was iron, and, of course, it would 
not, or could not, explode if the vagabond fireman 

13% O 


210 USE AND ABUSE OF 


had not let the water get low. The boiler might, in 
the first place, be made of an inferior quality of 
iron; might be constructed in the most bungling 
manner; the fittings might not only have been of 
the most inferior kind, but inadequate in every re- 
spect. In fact, it might be burned, banged, abused, 
or crystallized through excessive firing, or it might 
be cracked, patched, corroded, and taxed beyond its 
strength; and when patience ceased to be a virtue, 
it exploded. It was sure to bring down the censure, 
if not the vengeance, of the community on the 
devoted head of the unfortunate engineer or fire- 
man; and if, perchance, his life was saved, he was 
sure to be ostracized and driven out, as though it 
were, from the face of the Lord. Strange as it may 
seem, this monstrous belief was not confined to timid 
people alone, but was entertained very largely by a 
class of men styling themselves scientific experts. 
Of course, in the face of such ignorance and stupidity, 
it would be useless to attempt to prove that some 
of the most destructive explosions that ever occurred 
in this country took place when there was a suffi- 
ciency of water in the boiler. 

Another of the stereotyped causes of explosion 
was tampering with the safety-valve. That adjunct 
of the steam-boiler might be out of all proportion ; 
it might be miserably constructed ; in fact, it might 
be an unsafety-valve instead of a safety-valve — but 
what difference did that make when the boiler ex- 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 211 


ploded? No one took interest enough in the matter 


* to ascertain its proportions, or the manner in which 


it was fitted, so that the blame, if blame there was, 
might rest where it rightfully belonged, viz., on the 
party who attached such an abortion to the steam- 
boiler. All cheerfully united in cursing the fireman 
if living, and blasting his memory if dead. Verily, 
those who chose the care and management of the 
steam-boiler as a calling in the past, as well as those 
who intend to do so in the future, ought to feel 
grateful to the men who stripped boiler explosions 
of the mystery that so long enshrouded them, and 
attributed them to their real causes. 

More recently, the theory that electricity was an 
active agency in steam-boiler explosions was quite 
rife; but Faraday and other eminent chemists proved 
conclusively that the development of electricity in 
the steam-boiler, if such a phenomenon could at all 
occur, would be due solely to the friction of the 
steam against the sides of the vessel; that the pres- 
ence of electricity would be more likely to occur in 
the steam-pipe or in the steam-cylinder than in the 
boiler, and that all the experiments, investigation, 
and researches fail to discover the presence of elec- 
tricity in steam. Even if it were a fact that the pres- 


‘ence of electricity did actually exist in steam, how 


was it to accumulate? it certainly could not be done 
when the boiler was not in use, as there would be no 
friction to create it; and when the boiler was in use, 


212 USE AND ARUSE OF 


if such a thing could exist, the electricity would 
escape through the safety-valve and steam-pipe, or ~ 
any of the openings, with a velocity more than one 
million times faster than steam at two hundred and 
forty pounds to the square inch. Besides, boilers and 
their connections are conductors, the same as light- 
ning-rods; and if electricity existed in the boiler, it 
would soon find its way to the ground. 

Explosive Gases.— This theory was, in its turn, 
urged as one of the main causes of boiler explosions, 
and it was claimed that large bodies of steam were 
decomposed by being brought in contact with red- 
hot plates, and that gas was formed with such rapid-— 
ity and elastic force that no boiler structure was 
sufficiently strong to withstand it. But it was shown 
by thousands of practical experiments that only a 
very small quantity of steam could be decomposed 
by being brought in contact with the parts of steam- 
boilers most likely to become heated; and that even 
then it would not be dangerous, as the hydrogen is 
not explosive, unless mixed with its equivalent of 
oxygen, when it would have to be ignited with a 
spark to produce explosion. Again, assuming that 
nearly all the steam can be decomposed, the hydro- 
gen would only burn quietly in the presence of 
oxygen, as it becomes liberated on the red-hot sur- 
face of the plates and fails to produce an explosion. 
But to take the extreme view of the case, assuming 
a sudden and perfect union of the gases to take 


THE STEAM-BOILER. Lhe 


place, it would still be difficult to see how an explo- 
sion could take place, as neither the volume nor 
pressure would be increased. | 

Concussive Ebullition.— Then the phenomenon 
termed concussive ebullition was advanced as a 
cause of boiler explosions. This theory was founded 
on the experiments of Dufour, who claimed that by 
suspending drops of water in heated oil, the temper- 
ature of the water might be raised considerably 
above the boiling-point without the formation of 
vapor, but that if a bubble of air or a particle of 
any porous substance was placed in contact with the 
water a burst of vapor immediately occurred. Now 
if this theory should be shown to be correct, sensible 
people would be at a loss to know what relation or 
what similarity of conditions can exist between drops 
of water suspended in oil and a steam-boiler in ordi- 
nary use. It was also claimed that the presence of 
oil in steam-boilers would cause them to explode; 
but this theory lost much of its weight from the fact 
that oil is frequently used for preventing incrustation, 
and that the boilers in which it is used do not ex- 
plode. It is also well known that oil is very liber- 
ally used in the making of steam-boilers, and that 
there is hardly one that has not had more than a 
gallon of oil smeared over its surface in the different 
processes of manufacture. 

Spheroidal Theory. — The spheroidal theory is 
the so-claimed tendency of water, when thrown upon 


214 USE AND ABUSE OF 


highly heated plates, to assume the spheroidal con- 
dition, and to evaporate suddenly when the temper- 
ature is sufficiently lowered. The exact application 
of this theory is by no means clear, and the assumed 
delay of the water in evaporating is antagonistic to 
the sudden evaporation from the overheating theory, 
as it is difficult to see how the evaporation of a large 
quantity of water in an ordinary boiler could be de- 
layed (as is assumed in this theory) without reducing 
the temperature of the water below that sufficient to 
produce an explosion. It is well known that water 
in this state evaporates very slowly, and this has 
been attributed to the supposed fact that the heat 
was transmitted through the spheroids; but Bou- 
tigmy attributes it to the reflection of heat from their 
surfaces, showing that they do not absorb heat. 

All the foregoing magnificent theories have been 
disproved through the operations of the Hartford 
Steam-Boiler Inspection and Insurance Company. 
Proof of this is found in the fact that whenever 
manufacturers and steam-users place their boilers in 
the care of this Company they are sure to receive 
immediate and full protection from steam-boiler ex- 
plosions. As it is noticeable that the electricity 
immediately gives out, that the drops of water fail 
to suspend in heated oil, or even form into spheres 
and roll over the surface of the plates like spinning- 
tops, that the gas fails to generate in volumes that 
would place a Wilcox’s fire-annihilator in the shade, 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 218 


and that the water refuses to thump against the sides 
of the boiler, when the intelligent and experienced 
inspector comes to do so with his hammer and chisel, 
he would be very likely to say that either such theo- 
ries or the plates were a “little too thin,” or perhaps 
both. To compensate for the absence of so many 
splendid phenomena, there is always sure to be an 
immense discovery of broken braces, cracked seams, 
bulged plates, distorted crown-sheets, defective steam- 
gauges, and inferior safety-valves. 

The principal causes of explosion, in fact the 
only causes, are deficiency of strength in the shell or 
other parts of the boilers, over-pressure, and over-heat- 
ing. Deficiency of strength in steam-boilers may be 
an original defect, arising in the material or workman- 
ship at the time of construction, or it may be due to 
deterioration from use, to ordinary wear, or to inju- 
ries arising from mismanagement, want of attention, 
and repairs, etc. It often happens that boilers are 
deficient in strength for the pressure they are in- 
tended to bear, and no accumulation of pressure be- 
yond this is necessary to bring about their destruc- 
tion. Deficiency of strength arising from bad 
workmanship is the most difficult to discover, and 
not unfrequently escapes the closest scrutiny, more 
particularly so in the case of flue, tubular, and loco- 
motive boilers, as their examination is attended with 
certain difficulties. 

Over-pressure niay be caused by the safety-valve 


216 USE AND ABUSE OF 


being recklessly overweighted, by the sticking of the 
valve on its seat, by the inadequate size of the com- 
munication between the boiler and the valve, or by 
an incorrect or worthless steam-gauge. Boilers are 
frequently found running at a pressure which is 
regarded -as perfectly safe, but when the gauge is 
examined and compared with one known to be cor- 
rect, it is found to be 10, 20, or even, as is some- 
times the case, 50 pounds out of the way. If a 
boiler supposed to be running under a pressure of 80 
pounds is found, in consequence of an unreliable 
steam-gauge, to be actually running at a pressure of 
120 to 130 pounds, the limit of safety may have been 
passed, and an accident is imminent, which may 
occur at any moment. 

Over-heating induced by excessive firing is no 
doubt the cause of many explosions, and most fre- 
quently occurs when the boiler is too small for the 
engine, or incapable of furnishing the required 
amount of steam, as the intensity of the fire neces- 
sary to generate the desired quantity of steam has a 
tendency to repel the water from the plates. The 
same effect may be produced when there is a great 
disproportion between the grate- and heating-surfaces, 
or where the heat from a large grate is concentrated 
on a small space. Under such circumstances, the 
heat is delivered with such intensity as to lift the 
water from the surface of the iron, thereby exposing 
it to the direct action of the fire. Explosions occur-— 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 217 


ring from excessive firing are in all cases the result 
of avarice, ignorance, or a want of skill in the care 
and management of the steam-boiler. Over-heating 
may be caused by the accumulation of hard, solid 
incrustation adhering to the parts most exposed to 
the direct action of the fire, or it may be due to 
shortness of water, which may result from leakage 
of the valve or stop-cock, to a failure in the supply- 
pipe, or neglect to turn it on at the proper time or in 
sufficient quantity. 

A steam-boiler may be well designed, made of 
good material, and of first-class workmanship, and 
yet in a few months after being put under steam it 
may explode with terrible effect. On examining into 
the cause of the explosion, it may turn out that the 
water which was used made a heavy deposit; that 
the boiler had not been cleaned out since it was put 
in use; that the fires had been fiercely urged, and 
the water driven from the surface of the iron; asa 
result, the life had been entirely burnt out of the 
sheets directly over and around the fire, thereby 
weakening the boiler and putting it in a dangerous 
condition. That the sudden heating or cooling and 
oxidation of the boiler induce great deterioration of 
strength has been proved by experience. Defects in 
the material, as blisters, lamination, arising either 
from their inferior quality or want of care in the 
manufacture, are other sources of weakness in steam- 
boilers. 

19 


218 USE AND ABUSE OF 


A great deal more might be written on this sub- 
ject if needed, but suffice it to say that there is 
no mystery about steam-boiler explosions; they are 
all regulated by cause and effect; and it will be 
found, on investigation, that seven-tenths of all the 
boiler explosions that occur yearly in this country 
might be traced to some sufficient cause, were all the 
facts known. Even if there is some apparent mys- 
tery connected with boiler explosions in some in- 
stances, it will vanish before sound and careful 
investigation. The solution may involve the exami- 
nation of a great number of boilers and extend over 
years, but the greater the number examined, with 
their particular defects understood and explained, 
the greater will be the fund of information from 
which to draw conclusions. No amount of theory 
will explain the different causes of explosions, as that 
can only be determined by a full comprehension of 
the circumstances under which they occurred, which 
involves the quality of the material of which they 
are constructed, character of workmanship, form or 
type of boiler, setting, attachments, properties of 
water used, kind of fuel, age, treatment, and skill 
employed in the care and management. These are 
the vital points to be considered in order to arrive 
at any approximate solution of the cause or causes 
of steam-boiler exp:osions. 

The sooner steam-users and engineers discard all 
theories in conneciion with steam-boiler explosions, 





THE STEAM-BOILER. 219 


and come to the conclusion that when a boiler ex- 
plodes one of two things is certain — either that the 
pressure was too great for the boiler, or that the 
boiler was not equal to the pressure; that it gave way 
in the weakest place, and that the strength of 
any machine (the steam-boiler included) must be 
measured by its weakest point, and that the sooner 
this principle is universally recognized the better it 
will be for every steam-using community. A weak 
spot, a flaw, or a crack in a boiler does not improve 
by use, and when any machine breaks down at a 
point which shows that it must have been weak for 
a long time, no one thinks of going into a long dis- 
cussion or explanation of the mysterious agencies 
which were suddenly brought to bear on it and cause 
it to break. Not so, however, with a steam-boiler ; it 
may have been burned, corroded, and cracked for 
years, and when at last it explodes there are always 
to be found those who wish to involve the whole 
thing in mystery and tell how it must have occurred, 
who are always unable to tell how it might have 
been prevented. 

‘Within the past eight years, mainly through the 
operations of the Hartford Steam-Boiler Inspection 
and Insurance Company, steam-boiler explosions 
have been stripped of the mystery in which vision- 
ary theorists had so long enshrouded them, and the 
belief in such heresy as mysterious steam-boiler ex- 
plosions is principally confined to those who are 


920 USE AND ABUSE OF 


incapable of or unwilling to be convinced, even when 
the facts are laid before them. The class of persons, 
of all others, that ought to encourage such theories, 
and take refuge behind them, when called upon to 
pay damages in case of accident, are those who 
discard such theories when accounting: for boiler 
explosions, and the correctness of their views is suf- 
ficiently attested by the almost entire absence of 
serious accidents in connection with the thousands 
of boilers of all sorts and conditions that are or 
have been in their care for several years past. 

Few have any idea of the extent to which steam 
is used in our large cities, or of the risks to which 
even those who have no interest in the boilers, and 
who are not connected in any way with the business 
in which they are used, are exposed. In almost 
every building along our principal thoroughfares 
may be found a large boiler, used for heating pur- 
poses or for furnishing power, which is concealed 
from public view. It is only when the public are 
startled by an explosion, and by the death or injury 
of innocent persons, that the true condition of things 
is revealed, and that the dangers incurred by every 
passer-by are exposed. 





HE opinions of wise men, who are willing 

to investigate for the purpose of gaining 
and giving information, are entitled to due 
respect and consideration. But when theo- 
ries and opinions are promulgated that have 
no truthful basis upon which to rest, and 
which seem to have no end save that of exalt- 
ing the promulgator, it is the duty of those 
who have had practice and experience to 
counteract such influences, and show how 
much labor can be expended in mystifying 
and clouding a subject which might other- 


wise be comparatively simple. 
19.4 ic tek 
































USE AND ABUSE 


OF 






















































EXPLODED BOILER OF THE LOCOMOTIVE “CHARLES WILLARD 


yy 


THE STEAM-ROILER. 223 


EXPERIMENTAL BOILER EXPLOSIONS. 


Several attempts have been made, and large 
sums of government money expended, to ascertain 
the cause of steam-boiler explosions by experiment ; 
but such experiments have failed to shed any 
light on the subject, as they must ever do, in, conse- 
quence of the circumstances under which _ boilers 
are made and used being so different. Take, for 
instance, two boilers of the same dimensions in every 
respect, and of the same material and workmanship, 
to be used in different parts of the country and 
under entirely different circumstances. One may 
explode with disastrous effects, while the other may 
remain perfectly safe and sound. Now what rela- 
tion can be established between the danger or safety - 
of either, unless all the circumstances connected with 
their care and management be known, viz., proper- 
ties of water, character of the setting, condition of 
the boiler, care and management, etc. A boiler of 
a peculiar type may be selected for the purpose of 
testing what pressure it would take to burst or ex- 
plode it. 

The first thing to be done in such a case would 
probably be to see that the joints were all steam- 
and water-tight, and that the braces were all taut, 
and everything restored as nearly as possible to its 
original condition. The explosion may establish the 
fact that the boiler sustained a pressure of two or 


224 USE AND ABUSE OF 


three hundred pounds to the square inch before 
giving away. Now, perhaps, there may be located 
in the same neighborhood a boiler of the same type, 
made by the same manufacturer, of the same thick- 
ness and brand of iron, and by the.same mechanics ; 
but it may have some inherent defect, due either to 
the material or the workmanship. It may have been 
badly cared for, burned, bulged, crystallized, cracked, 
or corroded ; then, if it should explode, what relation 
would it bear to the other, save simply in type? 
What criterion would it establish by which to deter- 
mine the safe working or bursting pressure of all 
classes of boilers, or even those of the same type? 
The following instance came to the knowledge of the 
writer, which goes to show how futile any attempt 
must ever be to establish the cause of steam-boiler 
explosion by experiment. An engineer undertook 
to apply the hydrostatic test to the boiler in his 
charge; and, to accomplish his object, he placed a 
quantity of grate-bars on the lever of the safety-valve, 
and by means of a force-pump raised the cold-water 
pressure to one hundred and twenty pounds to the - 
square inch, without the boiler showing any signs of 
weakness or leakage, although it had been in use 
nine years. The test was considered satisfactory ; 
the water was then run down to the proper level, 
the fire started, and it was only when steam blew off 
at the safety-valve that the engineer remembered 
that he did not remove the grate-bars from the 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 225 


safety-valve lever. He then drew his fire, and 
allowed the boiler to cool, and when the grate-bars 
were taken down and weighed, it was ascertained 
that the boiler sustained a steam-pressure of three 
hundred and seven and one-half pounds to the 
square inch. 3 

Another boiler of the same type, located in the 
same neighborhood, built by the same manufacturers, 
and as nearly alike in every respect as possible, 
showed signs of leakage when only two years in use; 
but, as the cause of the leakage was concealed under 
a mass of masonry, it was impossible .to ascertain 
what the nature of the defect was. An experienced 
boiler-inspector was called in, and, after removing a 
portion of the brickwork by which the boiler was 
enveloped, he discovered that the material was 
cracked through between thirteen rivet-holes in one 
of the seams a little below the water-line, and that 
the heads of three of the rivets in that part of the 
seam that was sound had dropped off, in consequence 
of being cold-shutted in the process of riveting. 
Such a boiler would, in all probability, burst or 
explode under a pressure of less than one hundred 
pounds to the square inch, which goes to show that 
the cause of boiler explosions can never be deter- 
mined by experiment. This can only be ascertained 
by a knowledge of all the circumstances connected 


with each individual case. 
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226 USE AND ABUSE OF 


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THE ROOT BOILER. 


This boiler consists essentially of 80 wrought-iron 
tubes, 4 inches and 9 feet long. These.tubes are set 
in brickwork, at an angle of about 30° from the 
horizontal. The tubes are connected together at the 
ends by a system of triangular plates and crowfeet. 
The boiler has a steam-drum 18 inches by 63 feet 


long. The superheating is effected in the upper por- 
tion of the boiler. 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 227 


VAGARIES OF EXPERTS IN REGARD TO 
STEAM-BOILER EXPLOSIONS. 


The boiler in a plaster-mill in Pennsylvania ex- 
ploded, killing the fireman instantly, and it was on 
evidence at the inquest that the boiler was so located 
that it had no protection from the effects of the 
weather. It was not known to have been cleaned or 
examined for ten years. The steam-gauge got out 
of order and was allowed to fall into disuse, and the 
gauge-cocks became choked with mud. After the 
explosion, the safety-valve was picked up more than 
one hundred feet from where the occurrence took 
place, and it was so much corroded, that it became 
necessary to use a hammer to drive it from its seat. 
An expert was summoned to testify at the inquest, 
in order that the jury might be able to form their 
conclusion as to the cause of the fireman’s death, and 
he stated that the air that afternoon was surcharged 
with electricity, and that that was undoubtedly the 
cause of the explosion; he was invited to examine 
the boiler and its attachments for the purpose of 
satisfying himself on the subject, but he declined to 
do so, stating that his mind was fully made up in 
regard to the cause of the explosion. 

Two large steam-boilers in a cabinet manufac- 
tory in Philadelphia had but one safety-valve, which 
was located on a branch-pipe for the purpose of 
allowing a stop-valve to be placed between it and 


228 USE AND ABUSE OF 


the boiler, for the purpose of using one boiler at a 
time if desirable. On one-occasion, when the engine 
was undergoing repairs, it became necessary to shut 
down this stop-valve; when everything was ready, 
in the absence of the regular engineer, one of the 
workmen was instructed to fire up with wood and 
shavings, and as all the means of escape for the 
increasing pressure was cut off, the boiler exploded, 
killing eighteen men and injuring two others so that 
they died soon afterwards. A noted expert was 
summoned before the coroner’s jury to explain if 
possible the cause of the disaster, and he testified that 
there was a strong current of electricity passing be- 
tween the poles that afternoon, and that. its pas- 
sage was probably obstructed by some dense clouds, 
which phenomenon was the cause of the explosion. 
He further stated that if the explosion had not 
occurred until an hour afterwards, he did not believe 
it would have taken place at all. 

The owner of a planing-mill in Michigan, instead 
of employing a competent person to take charge of 
us engine and boiler, instructed any of his workmen 
who could find it most convenient to. fire up, and 
.an the engine. The water which was used in the 
Soiler was taken from a mountain stream, and was so 
impregnated with lime that the pipes became choked, 
and the boiler became so coated with incrustation 
that it bulged and cracked in several places, and 
finally exploded, killing three men and frightfully 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 229 


wounding five others. An expert was sent for in 
order that his teatimony might shed some light on 
the cause of the explosion. He stated that there was 
an extensive belt of ozone extending over that sec- 
tion of the country, and that wherever the presence 
of ozone existed in the air boilers would explode, no 
matter how carefully they were managed. 

At the investigation that followed the explosion 
on board the ferry-boat ‘‘ Westfield,” it was shown 
that the boiler was made of #-inch iron, and 120 
inches in diameter. The safe working-pressure of 
such: a boiler when new, according to Fairbairn, 
would be from 28 to 80 pounds per square inch. It 
was in evidence that, though the boiler had been in 
use twelve years, it was badly cracked and patched, 
and was carrying a pressure of 40 pounds to the square 
inch at the time of the explosion. Such a statement 
of facts would enable any intelligent mind to form 
a definite conclusion as to the cause of the explosion ; 
nevertheless, an expert came forward and offered to 
explain the cause of the disaster, when, on being 
questioned, he stated that at the time of the explo- 
sion the boiler was full of inflammable gas, and when 
asked what kind of gas, he answered that it ‘‘ might 
a’ bin” oxygen. 

Experts have always made it an object to mystify 
the cause of steam-boiler explosion, probably for the 
purpose of retaining the honor among their fellow- 
men of being looked up to as the only exponents of 

20 


oa 


230 USE AND ABUSE OF 


a phenomenon which produces such disastrous results. 
They seem to imitate the ancient priests, both among 
the Jews and heathen, who were, from their ordinary 
duties, necessarily conversant with the generation of 
steam; but their knowledge of it was mainly exerted 
to delude men to idol worship and lock their minds 
in ignorance instead of to benefit and enlighten them. 


DEFECTS IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF STEAM- 
BOILERS. 


The following cuts illustrate some of the mechanical 
defects that impair the strength and limit the safety 
and durability of steam-boilers. All punched holes 
are conical, and unless the sheets are reversed, after 
veing punched, so as to bring the small sides of the 
holes together, it will be impossible to fill them with 
the rivets. Fig. 1 shows the position of the rivet in 
the hole, without the sheets being reversed; and it 
will be observed that, as very little of the rivet bears 
against the material, the expansion and contraction 
of the boiler have a tendency to work it loose. It is 
apparent that such a seam would not possess over 
one-third the strength that it would if the holes in 
the sheets were reversed and thoroughly filled with 
the rivet, as shown in Fig. 2. Fig. 3 represents 
what is known in boiler-making as a blind-hole, 
which means that the holes do not come opposite 
each other when the reams are placed together for 





- a 


FIG, 1, FIG, 2, 


FIG, 3 





@o G@ 


FIG, 5, FIG, 6, 


232 USE AND ABUSE OF 


the purpose of riveting. Fig. 4 shows the position 
of the rivet in the blind-hole after being driven. It 
will be observed that the heads of the rivet, in con- 
sequence of its oblique position in the hole, bear only 
on one side, and that even there the bearing is very 
limited, and, through the expansion and contraction 
of the boiler, is liable to work loose and become 
leaky. Such a seam would be actually weaker than 
that represented in Fig. 1. Fig. 5 shows the metal 
distressed and puckered on each side of the blind- 
hole in the sheets, which is the result of efforts on 
the part of the boiler-maker, by the use of the drift- 
pin, to make the holes correspond for the purpose of 
inserting the rivet. Fig. 6 shows the metal broken 
through by the same means. 

Now it will be observed that nearly all the above 
defects are the result of ignorance and carelessness, 
showing a want of skill in laying out the work, as 
well as a want of proper appliances for that purpose. 
The evils arising from such defects are greatly ag- 
gravated by the fact that they are all concealed, fre- 
quently defying the closest scrutiny, and are only 
revealed by those forces which unceasingly act on 
boilers when in use. Such pernicious mechanical 
blunders ought to be condemned, as they are always 
the forerunners of destruction and death. There 
can be no reason why boilers should not be con- 
structed with the same degree of accuracy, judgment, 
and skill as is considered so essential for all other 
classes of machinery. 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 238 


IMPROVEMENTS IN STEAM-BOILERS, 


Until quite recently the steam-boiler has under- 
gone very little improvement.. This arose, perhaps, 
from the fact that men of intelligence and mechan- 
ical genius directed their thoughts and labors to some- 
thing more inviting and less laborious than the con- 
struction ofsteam-boilers. Consequently, that branch 
of mechanics was left almost entirely to a class 
of men that had not the genius to rise in their 
profession or improve much in anything they at- 
tempted. As a result, ignorance, stupidity, and a 
kind of: brute force were the predominant acquire- 
ments in the construction of the steam-boiler; but 
within the past few years this state of things has been 
changed, as some very important improvements have 
been made, not only in the manufacture of the mate- 
rial of which boilers are made, but also in the mode 
of constructing them. The imposing display of pow- 
erful and accurate boiler machinery shown at the 
Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia, is an evi- 
dence that the attention of eminent mechanics and 
manufacturers is directed to the steam-boiler, and 
that in the future its improvement will keep pace 
with that of the steam-engine. 

Boiler-plate is now rolled of sufficient dimensions 
to form the reams for boilers of any diameter with 
only one seam, obviating the necessity of bringing 
riveted seams in contact with the fire, as was usually 

20 


234 USE AND ABUSE OF 


the case in former times. In the manner of laying 
off the holes for the rivets, accurate steel gauges 
have taken the place of the old-fashioned wooden 
templet, thereby removing the evils induced by 
blind-holes, and obviating the necessity of using the 
drift-pin. So, also, in the method of bending the 
sheets to form the requisite circle—with a better class 
of machinery, the work is now more accurately per- 
formed. The old process of chipping is, in nearly 
all the large boiler-shops, superseded by planing the 
bevels on the edge of the sheet preparatory to 
calking. Recent improvements in “calking” have 
resulted in perfect immunity from the injuries for- 
merly inflicted on boilers in that process. In most 
establishments of any repute in this country, riveting 
is done by machinery, which is (as is well known to 
all intelligent mechanics) very much superior to 
hand-riveting. It is only small shops that enter 
into rivalry to secure orders and build cheap boilers, 
using poor material and an inferior quality of me- 
chanical skill, that use the same old crude appliances 
—in many cases the merest make-shifts—that were in 
use a quarter of a century ago, and constructed with- 
out regard to any of the rules of design that are 
considered so essential in appliances for the con- 
struction of all other classes of machinery. 


THE STEAM-BOILER,. 235 


SIRS 


AANA RATAN 
RUN 





THE ALLEN BOILER. 


In this boiler the roof of the fire-chamber is made 
of nine cast-iron cylinders, each seven inches internal 
diameter and eleven feet long; and into each of 
these cylinders eighteen wrought-iron tubes, three 
and a half inches in diameter, are screwed, the lower 
ends being closed by plugs. These tubes hang down 
from the roof into the fire-chamber, and are set at an 
angle of about twenty degrees from the vertical ; the 
lower end being farthest from the fire-door. The 
tubes over the fire are three feet two inches long, the 
rear ones are four feet five inches long. Steam- 
drums are arranged over the boiler. 


Mes Y Engineer should inform himself 
4+ on the subject of the safe working press- 
ure of Boilers, and when he finds the limit 
of safety has been reached, he should prompt- 
ly inform his employer, and wse his inflw- 
ence to have the Boiler worked within the 
bounds of safety. 
236 


THE STEAM-BOILER, 6 


CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF STEAM-BOILERS. 


No class of men are entrusted with greater re- 
sponsibilities, none hold in their keeping more im- 
portant interests of life and property, than those 
having the charge of steam-boilers. A mistake in 
judgment at a critical point, ora careless neglect of 
duty, may cause, and has often resulted in, terrible 
destruction to life and property. The most skilful 
and best-informed engineers, and those best versed in 
steam matters, are the ones who most fully appre- 
ciate its dangers, and also the most willing to learn 
all they, can relative to any new points of interest, 
danger, or safety. 

In the management of steam-boilers there are 
certain rules that must be observed, and to insure 
faithfulness, the owners of boilers should secure the 
services of intelligent men — ignorance and careless- 
ness have been the occasion of too many accidents, 
and great destruction of life and property has not un- 
frequently been the result of employing cheap help. 
In the care and management of steam-boilers, men 
should be employed who know at least something of 
the nature of the power with which they have to 
deal; men who understand the use of the various 
attachments on steam-boilers; men of good sound 
judgment who have, if not a thorough, at least a 
practical knowledge of the strength of iron, of its 
capabilities to resist pressure, and who know beyond 


238 USE AND ABUSE OF 


what limits they should not allow pressure to accu- 
mulate. 

it will be poor consolation to the owner of a steam- 
boiler, after his property has been destroyed by a ter- 
rible explosion, to congratulate himself on the fact 
that he saved a few dollars a month in the wages of 
his engineer, by employing a careless or incompetent 
man. But if those who neglect and abuse steam- 
boilers were the only ones to suffer from explosions, 
carelessness and mismanagement would be less a 
matter of public concern; but when the lives of 
hundreds are often thus exposed to danger, it should 
be the aim of every steam-user to do his utmost to 
render the use of steam in his establishment safe, as 
after an explosion, where persons have been killed 
or maimed for life, the public verdict is very severe, 
and no right-minded man would wish to covet any 
man’s experience or reflections who has laid himself 
open to public censure by neglecting to do what 
might have prevented so serious a disaster. 

A very mischievous practice exists in various 
parts of the country in reference to starting fires 
under steam-boilers preparatory to raising steam. 
This duty is entrusted to ignorant watchmen, who are 
too often the agents of disaster. These men are 
instructed to light the fire at a certain hour, and 
comply with their orders without exercising the least 
judgment on the subject. Numerous instances are 
on record where watchmen have started the fires 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 239 


under steam-boilers and raised steam before discover- 
ing that there was insufficient water in the boilers, 
thus incurring the risk of burning the boilers, if not 
actually ruining them. No persons ought to be per- 
mitted to meddle in any way with the steam-boiler, 
except those who are skilled in the management of 
them, and who are fully conversant with the proper- 
ties of steam. Thousands of lives are lost and much 
valuable property destroyed through the ignorance of 
those left temporarily in charge of steam-boilers. 

It may seem strange, but it is no less true, that, 
notwithstanding the numerous fatal explosions that 
have occurred, resulting from defects which could 
not have escaped the notice of a competent inspecter, 
many of the users of steam-power appear to be in- 
different as to the condition of their boilers. They 
would rather incur the risk of an explosion than 
stop their works one day in the year, that their 
boilers may be thoroughly examined. Even then 
many of them will not be at the trouble or expense 
of having the boilers properly cleaned and the flues 
swept, without which a satisfactory examination is 
impossible. 

In the majority of cases boilers are not cleaned 
half as often as they should be. When the water 
is hard, and scale accumulates on the sides or flues 
of the boiler, solvents are very often resorted to to 
remove the scale. After the scale has been thrown 
down it is frequently allowed to remain there and 


240 USE AND ABUSE OF 


- form a heavy conglomerate coating, which prevents 
the water from coming in contact with the iron, the 
result of which is that the parts of the boilers ex- 
posed to the direct action of the fire are cracked, 
bulged, or burned through. The yearly report of 
the Hartford Steam-Boiler Inspection and Insurance 
Company shows that nearly half of the whole num- 
ber of defective boilers became so on account of 
incrustation and deposit of sediment; and, strange 
as it may seem, there were forty per cent. more dan- 
gerous cases from the deposit of sediment than from 
incrustation and scale. 

The first duty of an engineer or fireman when he 
enters his boiler-room in the morning is to try the 
boiler gauge-cocks and ascertain if there is a suff- 
cient supply of water. Many boilers have been badly 
injured from neglect of this precaution. Fires are 
often replenished, and when well started, attention 
is directed to the water in the boiler. If from any 
cause during the night the water has escaped, the 
result may be a burned sheet, or probably still more 
serious injury. 

Too much reliance should never be placed on 
self-acting apparatus, such as gongs, floats, steam or 
alarm whistles, for regulating the height of the water 
in steam-boilers, as, even if they act with certainty, 
they provide only against one or two contingencies, 
while the dangers to which steam-boilers are exposed 
are numerous. 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 241 


The glass water-gauge, though one of the sim- 
plest, most beautiful, and useful attachments of the 
steam-boiler, should not be relied upon altogether to 
show the level of the water in the boiler. 

The gauge-cocks should be kept clean and in con- 
stant use, as they furnish the most reliable means of 
ascertaining the height of the water in a steam-boiler. 

The furnace door should never be allowed to 
remain open longer than is sufficient to clean and 
replenish the fire, as the contraction of the tubes and 
flues, induced by the cooling down of the furnace, 
has a very mischievous effect on all parts of the 
boiler exposed to the cold draught. 

The feed-water should be sent into the boiler as 
hot as possible, as, if it be forced in at a low tempera- 
ture, it will impinge on that portion of the boiler 
with which it comes in contact, and, as a result of 
the continual expansion and contraction induced by 
the varying temperature of the water, the boiler is 
liable to crack and become leaky. 

If, from neglect or any other cause, the water in 
the boiler should become dangerously low, the fire- 
doors and damper should be immediately thrown 
open, for the purpose of admitting the cold air to the 
heated plates, and the fire withdrawn as soon as pos- 
sible. Under such circumstances no attempt should 
be made to introduce cold water into the boiler, or 
disturb the safety-valve, as either might be attended 
with disastrous results. 


PAS oh Q 


249 USE AND ABUSE OF 


The safety-valve should always be moved before 
the fire is started to get up steam, for the purpose of 
ascertaining if it is in good working order. It should 
also be raised whenever the boiler is being filled with 
cold water in order to allow the air to escape, as air 
has a tendency to retard the influx of the water, and 
also to occupy the steam-room when steam is raised. 
Air also interferes with the uniform expansion of the 
boiler. 

All new boilers should be thoroughly examined 
before being filled with water, to ascertain if there 
are any tools, wood, lamps, greasy waste, etc., left 
behind by the boiler-makers, that would be liable to 
be carried into connections or cause the boiler to foam. 

In getting up steam in boilers just filled with cold 
water, or that have been out of use for some time, the 
fire should be allowed to burn moderately at first, in 
order to admit of the slow and uniform expansion of 
all parts of the boiler; as, when the fire is allowed 
to burn rapidly from the first start, some parts become 
expanded to their utmost limits, while others are as 
yet nearly cold, thereby subjecting the boiler to fear- 
ful strains, induced by unequal expansion and con- 
traction, which frequently results in leakage, frac- 
ture, and sagging of the shell or flues. 

When boilers are laid up, or out of use, even if it 
be for a few days, they should be opened, cleaned, and 
thoroughly examined, to ascertain if any of the stays 
or braces have become loose, slack, or disconnected. 


| 





THE STEAM-BOILER. 243 


' Before being closed up, all gaskets for man- and 


hand-holes, and grummets for mud-holes, should be 
painted with a coating of black lead and tallow, to 
protect their seats from deterioration induced by 
the chemical action of the sulphur in the gum-pack- 
ing, now so universally used for the joints of steam- 
boilers. 

When the weight is once fixed on the lever of a 
safety-valve, at the right point to retain the safe 
working pressure, the extra length of the lever 
should be cut off. 

The feed-supply and the firing should be as steady 
and as regular as possible, as frequent and extreme 
alterations of temperature, especially with boilers 
carrying a high pressure, or irregularities of any 
kind, have a very injurious effect. 

Ashes should never be allowed to accumulate 
around the water-legs of fire-box boilers, or the 
water-bottom of any boiler, as wet ashes, like any 
other lye, corrodes, and eventually destroys the iron. 

Boiler-flues should never be allowed to become 
choked with ashes, nor the shells to become coated 
with soot, as it very much impairs the efficiency of 
the heating surface and induces a wasteful consump- 
tion of fuel. The flues and tubes of boilers should 
be swept out at least once a week. This is a very im- 
portant object in point of economy, as, when the flues 
become choked with ashes, it requires an extra ex- 
penditure of fuel to generate the necessary quantity 


244 USE AND ABUSE OF 


of steam. Care and attention to little matters in 
managing steam-boiler fires will not only add to the 
working age of a boiler, but save materially in the 
consumption of fuel. 

Boilers should never be filled with cold water 
while they are hot, as it causes contraction of the 
seams and stays, often inducing fracture of stays or 
leakage in theseams and tubes. The tubes of boilers 
being generally of thinner material than the shell, 
cool and contract sooner. For this reason the boiler 
should never be filled with cold water while the 
tubes are hot. 

When two or more boilers are connected by feed- 

pipes, the stop-valves on each should be shut off 
when not working, as the water is liable to escape 
from one to the other, on account of variation in the 
pressures ; and as a consequence, when the water in 
one is up to, or even above, the proper level, the tubes 
or flues in the other are very often destitute of water. 

When, in consequence of leakage, accumulations 
of salt occur in the flues or tubes of marine-boilers, 
they should be removed as soon as possible and the 
tubes thoroughly swept, or, if need be, bored out with 
a flue-scraper; otherwise the parts covered with the 
accumulation will be apt to be burned through. In 
some cases it is necessary to direct a steam-jet on 
the place affected for the purpose of softening the 
deposit. | 

When flues become so leaky that it is impossible 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 245 


to make them tight in the tube-sheet by calking, this 
object can be effected by cast- or wrought-iron ferrules 
or expanders driven into the end of the tube. This 
arrangement, however, is only an alternative, as it 
interferes with the free escape of the gases from the 
furnace and diminishes the draught. 

One of the most common causes of deterioration 
in steam-boilers, and also of leakage of the seams and 
under side, and at the junctions of the tubes and 
tube-sheets, is the reckless practice of blowing out 
the boiler while still hot and filling it again with 
cold water. Under such circumstances, the contrac- 
tion of the crown-sheet, tube-sheets, and tubes is so 
rapid and unequal, that, if persisted in, the result is 
the ruin of the boiler. 

When an engine is stopped, if the steam should 
increase to an excessive pressure, the safety-valve 
should not be moved, as any sudden release of the 
steam might be attended with risk: it is better to 
open the furnace door, cover the fire with fresh fuel 
and turn on the feed-water ; this will have a tendency 
to lower the temperature and keep up the circulation 
in the boiler, so essential to safety when the steam 
is shut off and a hot fire in the furnace. Many 
boilers have exploded just as the engine was starting, 
after having stood still for some time; this arose, 
doubtless, from the fact that the plates directly 
around and in contact with the fire became over- 
heated in consequence of the circulation becoming 

21 * 


246 USE AND ABUSE OF 


enfeebled or entirely suspended after the steam was 
shut off. As soon as the engine was started and the 
pressure lessened, the water on the surface of the 
over-heated plates flashed into steam of tremendous 
elastic force. 

When boilers are to be cleaned they should be 
allowed to stand for several hours and cool before 
the water is run out; the deposit of mud and scale 
will then be found to be quite soft, and can be easily 
removed or washed out with a hose from all accessi- 
ble parts. There is a very erroneous impression ex- 
isting among engineers and steam-users, that blowing 
out a boiler under a high pressure has a tendency 
to remove the mud or deposit; this, however, is a 
mistake, as the contraction of the different parts of 
the boiler, induced by so sudden changes of tempera- 
ture, has a tendency to induce leakage of the seams 
and round the rivets and ends of the tubes. 

It is a very general impression among engineers 
and firemen, and receives encouragement from those 
who sell nostrums for the prevention and removal 
of scale, that so long as the mud or deposit is retained 
in the soft or slushy state, it can do the boiler no 
harm. ‘This is undoubtedly a mistake, as it retards 
the escape of the heat from the fire to-the water, in- 
ducing over-heating, which is generally followed by 
cracking and blistering of the plates and leaking at 
the seams. 

It is not uncommon in factories to have two 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 247 


boilers for the same engine, in order that one may be 
out of use while the other is working; but, while 
this is an accommodation, it is not always economy, 
as boilers wear out faster when not in use, by oxidiz- 
ing and corroding, than if moderately worked. It 
will be found more economical to work with extra 
boiler room than to have one or more standing idle, 
as it will tend to prevent priming; besides, the fur- 
naces will be more economically worked with a thick 
fire than with a thin one, and more of the heat will 
be absorbed by allowing it to accumulate, thereby 
maintaining a high temperature in the furnace with 
slow combustion. 

Never neglect to blow out, examine, and clean 
boilers when solvents are used to prevent and remove 
scale; because boilers under such circumstances re- 
quire as much, if not more, care than if no solvent 
or compound is used, as all that can be accomplished 
at best by such agents, is to loosen and throw down 
the scale, which if not removed will be apt to form 
into a hard conglomerate on the bottom of the boiler, 
preventing the water from coming in contact with 
the iron; the result is, the plates are burnt through 
and the boiler permanently ruined. 


T is a matter of regret that, too often, fire- 

men and engineers are laggards in the 
issues Of that real intelligence which ought 
to be carried out as effective traits of char- 
acter, indispensable to the credit of their 
profession. Too often a loose indifference to 
correct rules ts displayed by them, which 
shows that they have failed to perceive their 


own advantages. 
248 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 249 


INSTRUCTIONS FOR FIRING. 


In estimating the relative merits of different 
steam-engines, it is generally assumed that the fuel 
is burned under conditions with which the men who 
supply coal to the furnaces have nothing whatever 
to do. In short, that any man who can throw coal 
on a fire and keep*his bars clean, must be as good as 
any other, however well qualified. But this conclu- 
sion is totally erroneous, as it is within the experience 
of nearly every engineer and steam-user, that many 
engines now in operation throughout the country 
consume twice as much ftel, per horse-power, as is 
required for those that are more economically man- 
aged. 

The use of a more improved class of steam- 
engines involves the necessity of employing more 
skilful and careful attendants; not that the work is 
more difficult, as less coal has to be thrown into the 
furnace, but because a careless or unskilful fireman 
can counteract all the ingenuity displayed in the 
improvement, construction, and management of the 
engine. Consequently, every engineer should be 
required to prepare himself for the duties of his pro- 
fession by commencing as a fireman; otherwise, he 
cannot. be expected to be able to instruct his fireman 
in the manner of firing best calculated to insure the 
most satisfactory and economical results. 

There have not been, heretofore, that attention 


250 USE AND ABUSE OF 


and thought devoted to the examination of the sub- 
ject of the economy of fuel which the magnitude of 
the interest involved, and its importance, in a na- 
tional point of view, render it worthy of. The 
saving of one pound of water per horse-power per 
hour for ten hours a day, in an engine of 100 horse- 
power, assuming that the boiler evaporates 7 pounds 
of water per pound of coal, would make a saving of 
1000 pounds of water per day, which would require 
the consumption of 143 pounds of coal — 225 tons a 
year — the cost of which would be, at the ordinary 
price of coal, over $125. 

The methods most in vogue for the consumption 
of all kinds of fuel are those which gradually de- 
veloped themselves, as necessity dictated, to the un- 
tutored intellect of uncultivated men, but which, 
however creditable to the men that devised them, 
inasmuch as they availed themselves of all the 
sources of information within their reach, are never- 
theless a reproach to the more advanced knowledge 
of physical and mechanical science enjoyed by the 
present generation. 

Even with the best coal and most careful firing, a 
quantity of the coal falls through the fire-bars either 
as unburnt coal or ashes. Another portion goes up 
the chimney, unconsumed, in the form of smoke and 
soot; and a further quantity, half consumed, in the 
form of carbonic oxide. The loss from these causes 
may amount to from two to twenty per cent. It all 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 251 


arises from wrongly constructed furnaces and bad 
firing, and can nearly all be avoided. Most coal con- 
tains a greater or less quantity of moisture, and the 
evaporation of this moisture causes the first loss of 
heat. Radiation from the furnace causes a further 
loss. But the great causes of loss are the admission 
into the furnace of a large quantity of useless air 
and inert gases, and the escape of these, with the 
actual products of combustion, up the chimney at a 
very much higher temperature than that at which 
they entered the furnace. 

Air is composed of about one-third oxygen and 
two-thirds nitrogen. The oxygen only is required to 
effect the combustion of the fuel, and the useless 
nitrogen merely abstracts heat from the combustibles 
and lowers the temperature of the furnace. About 
12 pounds of air contain sufficient oxygen to effect 
the combustion of 1 pound of coal; but, owing to 
the difficulty of bringing the carbon into contact 
with the oygen, the quantity actually required to 
pass through the furnace is from 18 to 24 pounds of 
air per pound of coal burnt. The surplus air passes 
out unburnt, and its presence in the furnace lowers 
the temperature there and abstracts a portion of the 
heat generated. As the whole of the air enters the 
furnace at about 60° Fah., and the unconsumed air 
and products of combustion leave the flues at from 
400° Fah. to 800° Fah., the total loss from these 
causes is from 20 to 50 per cent. Each pound of 


252 USE AND ABUSE OF 


good coal burnt is theoretically capable of evapo- 
rating about 14 pounds of water. In practice, under 
the most favorable circumstances, it evaporates but 
from 7 to 9, and in ordinary practice from 4 to 6. 

There are difficulties in the way of abstracting all 
the heat from the furnace gases. First, because, with 
natural or chimney draught, the gases require to 
pass into the chimney at not less than 500° Fah., in 
order to maintain the draught ; and, secondly, because 
the transmission of heat from the gases to the water, 
when the difference of their temperatures is small, 
is so slow that an enormous extension of the surface 
in contact with them becomes necessary in order to 
effect it. But by having energetic combustion and 
a high temperature in the furnace, the quantity of 
air actually required may be much reduced. By 
suitable arrangements for admitting air and feeding 
coal into the furnace, the proportions of each may be 
suitably adjusted to each other; and by a liberal 
allowance of properly disposed heating-surface, the 
temperature of the gases may be reduced to that 
simply necessary to produce a natural draught, or to 
about 400° Fah. or less, in a furnace where the 
draught is obtained from a steam-jet or fan. 

Before starting a fresh fire, any dust, ashes, or 
cinders that may have remained in the furnace after 
the fire was drawn, should be removed and the sur- 
face of the bars made perfectly clean and level ; then 
a thin layer of fresh coal should be scattered over 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 258 


the grates for the purpose of protecting them from 
the extreme heat of the fresh fire, as the coal so 
scattered will absorb the heat that would otherwise 
be transmitted to the grates, and cause them to 
spring or warp. The fresh fuel will also cause the 
fire to burn more moderately, which is an object of 
great importance when boilers are cold. Most of the 
kindling, whether light wood, shavings, oily-waste, or 
paper, should’ be placed in the front end of the 
grates, near the furnace door, and then covered with 
a uniform layer of wood. ‘This is a necessary pre- 
caution, as, when the fuel fails to ignite at the front 
at first, it generally takes a long time before the fire 
buras through. 

When a boiler is of sufficient capacity to generate 
the necessary amount of steam, without urging the 
fires, it will be found most advantageous to carry a 
thick bed of coal on grates, as, when the coal can be 
burned in large quantities and with a moderate 
draught, the heat is more generally utilized than if 
the coal is burned in small quantities and with a 
sharp draught. For stationary boilers, the fuel 
should not be less than from 3 to 4 inches thick on 
the grate; for. marine or locomotive boilers, if 
anthracite coal be used, from 5 to 6; if bituminous, 
from 6 to 8 inches. Of course, the thickness of the 
fire must be governed by the character of the fuel 
and quantity of steam required. 


When the coal is in large lumps, so that the 
22 


254 USE AND ABUSE OF 


space between them is considerable, the depth may 
be greater than where the coal is small and lies com- 
pactly; and where the draught is very strong, so 
that the air passes with great velocity over and 
through the fuel, there is not time for the carbonic 
acid to combine with and carry off the products of 
combustion, and consequently a bed of greater depth 
may with propriety be used. When very large coal 
is used, it will be found of advantage to mix it with 
some small ‘coal, particularly when the draught is 
strong, as such an arrangement forms a resisting 
barrier to the currents of cold air that would other- 
wise pass through the interstices between the lumps, 
and render the combustion more perfect. 

When an increased quantity of steam is wanted, 
the average thickness or quantity of fuel on the grate 
must not be increased, but rather di:ainished, and 
supplied in smaller quantities and more frequently. 
As soon, however, as the supply of steam exceeds the 
demand, the coal may again be supplied in larger 
quantities at a time. When it becomes necessary to 
replenish the fire, it should be done as quickly as 
possible, as, when the damper and the fire-door are 
both open at the same time, the current of cold air 
passing through the furnace above the fuel not only 
reduces the temperature in the furnace, but has a 
tendency to injure the boiler. 

There should in all cases be ample fire i the 
furnace, an extra quantity of water in the boiler, and 


a ae eee, 


. THE STEAM-BOILER. 25d 


a full head of steam, before any attempt is made to 
clean the fire. Then the damper should be opened to 
its full extent, in order that the heated gases and dust 
may pass into the flue; and if there be more than 
one fire, one only should be cleaned at a time, and 
allowed to become thoroughly kindled before the 
next one is cleaned. The fire should never be 
allowed to become low for the purpose of making it 
more easy to clean, as, in consequence of the small 
quantity of fire in the furnace after cleaning, the 
combustion is cheeked, the temperature of the fur- 
nace lowered, and consequently a serious loss of fuel 
incurred. 

It is always best to have a good fire in the furnace 
before commencing to clean; then close the damper 


and open the furnace door for a few minutes, in 


order to take the white glare off the fire before com- 
mencing to clean it. The damper should then be 
reopened to its full extent and all the live fire pushed 
back to the bridge, without disturbing any of the 
ashes or cinders. The latter should then be drawn 
out, and the fire that was pushed back drawn for- 
ward, and the ashes and cinders that remain near 
the bridge removed. The fire should then be dis- 
tributed evenly over the grate, all the cinders and 
clinkers that remain picked out, and the fire covered 
with a thin layer of fresh coal, care being taken to 
waste none of the combustible fuel. 

The fire should never be disturbed so long as any 


256 USE AND ABUSE OF 


light shines through the grate into the ash-pit, unless 
the boiler fails to furnish the necessary amount of 
steam. Even then it is better, if anthracite coal be 
the fuel, to shed out the ashes from the bottom 
through the grate with a thin, hooked poker. But, if 
bituminous coal be used, it requires frequent breaking 
up, in order to allow the air to intensify the combus- 
tion. When broken up, it should always be pushed 
back toward the bridge, fresh fuel supplied in the 
front,and allowed to coke. The smaller the quantity 
supplied at a time, and the more attention paid to 
its distribution and regulation, the more perfect will 
be the combustion, and the more intense the heat. 
if, from neglect or any other cause, the fire should 
become low or the grate partly stripped, it should 
not be poked or disturbed, as that would have a 
tendency to put it entirely out; but wood, shavings, - 
sawdust, greasy-waste, or some other combustible 
substance, should be thrown on the bare places, and 
after being covered with a thin layer of coal, the 
damper opened to its full extent. The regulation 
of the draught should receive particular attention, 
as air costs nothing, while fuel is quite expensive. — 
Therefore none of the latter should be allowed to 
pass out of the furnace without being fully utilized. 
The ash-pit and front of the furnace should at all 
times be kept free from dirt, ashes, and cinders, as 
such accumulations have not only the effect of dimin- 
ishing the cubic contents of the space under the fur- 


ee eT Te eee ae 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 257 


nace, but also of obstructing the free current of air 
through the grate-bars, so essential to the perfect 
combustion of the fuel. “ 

It is a well-known fact, that much of the waste 
attributed to the steam-engine occurs in the furnace, 
and may be summed up as follows: Waste of un- 
burnt fuel in the solid state; waste of unburnt fuel 
in the gaseous or smoky state; waste by external 
radiation and conduction; waste by the excess of 
heat which escapes by the chimney over. that re- 
quired for the draught. These sources of waste give 
rise to excessive losses, which perfect arrangement 
and good management may tend to avoid; and if 
the arrangement and proportion of the boiler are 
good, the losses which occur in the consumption of 
fuel may be attributed, in a great measure, to the 
ignorance, inattention, or carelessness of the fireman. 

Clean grate-bars, with an even distribution of the 
fuel in the furnace, the exercise of judgment in the 
quantity of air admitted, and the regulation of the 
draught, are the main points to be attended to; and 
although they require the exercise of skill and intel- 
ligence, they cannot be said to involve an unreason- 
able amount of either labor or vigilance. 

When it becomes necessary to supply fuel to 
a boiler furnace, or to clean, slice, or poke the fire, 
it should be done with decision, quickness, and en- 
ergy, as, when the furnace door and damper are open 


at the same time, the cold currents of air passing in 
22 * BR. 


258 USE AND ABUSE OF 


above the fuel have a tendency not only to lower the 
temperature of the furnace, but to impinge on the 
parts of the boiler most exposed to the fire, which 
induce contraction, leakage, and permanent injury. 


DAMPERS. 


In the foregoing chapters such articles and at- 
tachments as have for their object the control and 
regulation of the water, the designation of the steam 
pressure, and the cleaning of boilers, have been con- 
sidered. It may not now be out of place to call 
attention to appliances for regulating the draught 
in furnaces, flues, and chimneys, which, as now em- 
ployed, are few and simple, consisting either of a cir- 
cular plate, which swings in a round flue, or a square. 
plate sliding in an iron frame. The importance of / 
efficient dampers has never received due consideration 
either from engineers or steam-users, when we con- 
sider how largely they contribute to the economy of 
fuel, by retarding the combustion which would gener- 
ate steam in excess of that needed, and also by pre- 
venting the cold air from escaping into the flues 
when the boiler is not in use, thereby lowering the 
temperature of the boiler and its surroundings, and 
involving the expenditure of an extra quantity of 
fuel when steam is raised. The damper illustrated 
on page 339 is one of the most simple and efficient — 
devices ever invented for the regulation of draughts 
in the furnaces of steam-boilers. 


Ko one who destres to be proficient in his 
Ci’ art will rest satisfied with a knowledge 
of the mere routine duties required. It is not 
enough to know that certain results are pro- 
duced from certain causes; this we may 
learn from mere experience. But, in order 
to become really intelligent, we must So 
further, and learn why the cawses produce 
the results, so that, in an emergency, other 
means may be swbstituted to accomplish the 
desired ends. 
259 


260 USE AND ABUSE OF 


STEAM-BOILER INSPECTION. 


It is asserted, on reliable authority, that the pro- 
portion of boiler explosions and ruptures, as com- 
pared with the number of boilers in use, exceeds the 
number of fires in buildings as compared with the 
number of buildings in the country. Tt is estimated 
that there are upwards of 100,000 steam-boilers in 
use in this country ; the number of explosions annu- 
ally is from 125 to 150, but when to these are added 
the ruptures, collapsed flues, ripped seams, etc., the 
number of disasters is increased to 900 or 1000, 
making one per cent. of the whole number in the 
country damaged more or less annually. 

The use of steam-power is increasing the world 
over, and it will continue to increase until some new 
motor, more effective and less expensive, is discov- 
ered. Therefore, intelligent and thorough boiler in- 
spection is one of the imperative necessities of the 
age. The manufacturer or steam-user, from a press 
of business or a want of that practical knowledge 
which is only attained in any pursuit by close study 
and observation, is unable to attend or give direc- 
tions in all the details involved in the care and man- 
agement of his steam-boilers. For a very small 
consideration, he can avail himself of the advantages 
to be derived from the inspection and insurance of 
steam-boilers, by placing his boilers under the care 
of responsible and reliable parties, who will do 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 261 


everything that can be done to insure safety. The 
experience of the past in the care and manage- 
ment of steam-boilers has shown the necessity of 
such a system, as it not only gives additional se- 
curity from the effects of boiler explosions, but also 
refutes the false and absurd theories which have 
tended to divert the attention of engineers and 
owners of steam-boilers from that watchfulness so 
essential to their care and management, by inducing 
the belief that no amount of care on their part will 
avail against certain mysterious agents at work 
within their boilers. 

Another advantage of intelligent and practical 
steam-boiler inspection is, that it gives the engineer 
an opportunity to inform himself on many points of 
vital importance, by conversing with one who, from 
making a special business of boiler-inspections, has 
become thoroughly versed in all matters pertaining to 
boilers and their attachments; consequently, every 
engineer and fireman should afford boiler-inspectors 
every facility to make a thorough examination of 
the boilers in their charge. They should give them 
all the information and facts relating to the same, as 
it may not only be the means of saving their own 
lives, but of many others, as well as much valuable. 
property. It is the duty of all engineers, steam- 
users, and those who take an interest in the lives 
and property of their fellow-man, to encourage care- 
ful, thorough, and intelligent steam-boiler inspection, 


262 USE AND ABUSE OF 


which, to be efficient, must have a pecuniary interest 
involved in its operations, as those who sustain no 
loss, either of time, means, or salary, are apt to 
become derelict of duty. 


RULES FOR FINDING THE QUANTITY OF WATER 
WHICH BOILERS AND OTHER CYLINDRICAL 
VESSELS ARE CAPABLE OF CONTAINING. 


Rule for Cylinder Boilers.— Multiply the area 
of the head in inches by the length in inches, and 
divide the product by 1728; the quotient will be 
the number of cubic feet of water the boiler will 
contain. 








EXAMPLE. 
Diameter of head, 36 inches. 
Area il ie a OL ue te Lae 
Length of boiler, 20 feet, or 240 inches. 
1017.87 
ime nk 
4071480 
_ 208574 
1728)244288.80 


141.87 cubic feet. 


Rule for Flue Boilers. — Multiply the area of head 
in inches by the length of the shell in inches; mul- 
tiply the combined area of the flues in inches by 
their length in inches; subtract this product from 
the first, and divide the remainder by 1728; the 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 2638 


quotient will be the number of cubic feet of water 
which the boiler will contain. 

Rule.— To find the Requisite Quantity of Water for 
a Steam-boiler.—Add 15 to the pressure of steam per 
square inch; divide the sum by 18; multiply the 
quotient by .24; the product will be the quantity in 
U.S. gallons per minute for each horse-power. 

Rule.— To find the Required Height of a Column 
of Water to supply a Steam-boiler against any given 
Pressure of Steam.— Multiply the boiler pressure in 
pounds per square inch by 2.5; the product will be 
the required height in feet above the surface of the 
water in the boiler. 

Another Rule.—7o find the Requisite Quantity of 
Water for a Steam-boiler—When the number of 
pounds of coal consumed per hour can be ascer- 
- tained, divide it by 7.5, and the quotient will be the 
required quantity of water in cubic feet per hour. 


EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF FUEL ON 
STEAM-BOILERS, 


Anthracite coal is undoubtedly the most trying 
fuel on the parts of steam-boilers exposed to its 
direct action, but nevertheless it is less destructive 
to the whole structure than either coke, wood, or 
bituminous coal. This arises from the fact that it 
can be consumed in more uniform quantities, and 
offers better facilities for the regulation of the air 


264 USE AND ABUSE OF 


than any other kind of fuel that might be used, as 
the grate-surface can be easily covered with a uni- 
form stratum necessitating the passage of the air | 
through it, which limits the quantity according to 
the thickness of the fuel on the grates, rendering the 
combustion more moderate and uniform. While, on 
the other hand, the combustion of coke, bituminous 
coal, and wood, is, at times, of the most fierce and 
energetic character; and, in consequence of the im- 
possibility of maintaining a uniform fire with these 
three last-named kinds of fuel, large quantities of air 
are admitted, which has a very deteriorating effect 
on all parts of the boiler, as they are continually 
exposed to the evils induced by extreme expansion | 
and contraction. 


BOILER MATERIALS. 


Boiler-making now holds an important place 
among the mechanical arts. Its progress has been 
aided chiefly by the enormous growth of the steam- 
engine, as the prime mover, and also by the increased 
facilities afforded for procuring suitable materials and 
by the improvements made in working them. In the 
early days of the steam-engine, boilers of copper and 
cast-iron were used for generating steam, but they 
were seldom subjected to a higher pressure than that 
of the atmosphere; but when pressures of 3 to 4, or 
even 7, atmospheres came into use cast-iron was 


THE STEAM- BOILER. 265 


found to be unreliable and treacherous, for which 
reason it was discarded in favor of wrought-iron, 
which was not employed at first, in consequence of 
the difficulty found in working it and in making 
steam-tight joints. It has, however, of late years be- 
come the material employed to the almost entire ex- 
clusion of all others. In fact, it has been more ex- 
tensively used in the construction of steam-boilers, 
for the past thirty years, than any other material, 
doubtless on account of its great tensile strength, 
together with its ductility, power of bearing sudden 
and trying strains, and general trustworthy nature ; 
its moderate facilities of working, the ease with which 
it can be welded, riveted, patched, or mended ; its 
moderate first cost, etc. 

The first quality to be sought for in boiler mate- 
rial is strength. This does not necessarily imply the 
mere power to resist being torn asunder by a dead- 
weight, as in a testing-machine, but the quality to 
withstand, without injury, the varying shocks and 
‘strains to which boilers are exposed. An inferior 
quality of plates cannot be relied upon to bear the 
ordeal of repeated heating and cooling, as they in- 
variably warp and twist, showing defects of. manu- 
facture; more especially in the process of cold- 
bending, when minute fractures often occur on the 
outer surface of the plates of stubborn or inferior 
qualities of iron. 


The defect most commonly revealed): in working 
23 


266 USE AND ABUSE OF 


boiler-plates is lamination. This defect arises from _ 
the imperfect welding of the several layers which 
make up the thickness of the plate, and is usually 
caused by interposed sand or cinder, which has not 
been expelled in hammering or rolling during the 
process of manufacture. This is more frequent in 
thick than in thin plates, and is sometimes very diffi. 
cult to detect in cold plate, although often discernible 
in the hot. It also often happens that plates, which 
are passed as quite sound, on careful external exam- 
ination, are found to be severely laminated when 
subjected to heating and hammering, and prove © 
totally unfit for use. 

Blisters are of a similar nature, and arise from 
the same cause as lamination. Sometimes they ap- 
pear as mere surface defects, and are of no conse- 
quence; but their appearance may be an indication 
of the want of care or skill in the making of the 
plate, and should always excite suspicion. It fre- 
quently happens that these defects pass undetected 
after the closest scrutiny and test by hammering, 
but disclose themselves soon after the boiler is set to 
work, especially if the plates be exposed to sudden 
variations of temperature. In the plates over the 
fire-grate of an externally-fired boiler such a blister 
may prove a very serious defect, and often necessi- 
tates the cutting out and replacement of the sheet. 
Inferior brands of iron will rapidly show unmis- 
takable signs of weakness, when placed under the 


THE STEAM-BOILER, 267 


trying ordeal of bearing the alternate impingement 
of a fierce flame and currents of cold air. The rapid 
variations of temperature caused by the sudden and 
frequent openings of the furnace-door and leakage 
of cold air through the grate-bars will soon tell on 
any kind of iron, but more quickly on that of an 
inferior brand. | | 

Characteristics of Boiler Iron when Broken. — 
On breaking a plate or bar of wrought-iron the frac- 
ture presents an appearance by which the quality of 
the iron may, in some measure, be determined. ‘The 
fracture is designated on the one hand as fibrous, 
tough, silky, close-grained, etc., or, on the other hand, 
crystalline, coarse, open-grained, brittle, and cold- 
shut. When broken suddenly the best qualities of 
plate- and bar-iron exhibit a fine, close-grained, uni- 
formly crystalline fracture, even silky, of a. light, 
silvery color; the appearance in the harder descrip- 
tions approaching to that of steel. The appearance 
of indifferently refined and inferior qualities is 
coarser, usually of a darker color, more or less une- 
ven or open, exhibiting large facets, and approach- 
ing some descriptions of cast-iron. When broken 
gradually, good iron presents a well-drawn out close 
fibre, of light greenish hue, whilst inferior qualities 
give a shorter, more open and darker fibre. 

When good ductile iron is gradually torn asunder 
it draws out or stretches to a considerable extent, 
causing a diminution of sectional area at the frac- 


268 USE AND ABUSE OF 


tured part, which should always be compared with 
the original sectional area of the specimen in judg- 
ing of the quality. An inferior bar or plate may 
bear as great a tensile strain as a similar specimen 
of superior quality; but, on comparing their frac- 
tured areas, it will generally appear that the latter 
has been drawn out considerably, whilst the inferior 
specimen, having stretched but little, has not sensi- 
bly diminished at the fracture. This is owing to the 
fact that good ductile iron is so much more trust- 
worthy than badly refined, when sudden strains 
occur. The one will stretch, while the other will 
snap. It is also a well-known fact that wrought- 
iron changes from fibrous to crystalline after en- 
during long-continued cold hammering, vibration, 
tension, jarring, and other strains, after long ex- 
posure to the influence of heat, or alternate expan- 
sion and contraction, whenever it has been used 
for the plates of a boiler-furnace. Even the very 
best plates, after from ten to twenty years’ use in a 
boiler, have frequently been found to break without 
stretching, at the same time displaying a crystalline 
fracture. 

It has been said that this shows that a change has 
taken place in the nature of the material, and that, 
from being fibrous and tough, it has, by some un- 
explained cause, become crystallized and brittle, or 
that it has lost its nature in consequence of the treat- 
ment it has undergone, whatever that may have been. 


THE STEAM-BOILER, 269 


There is no doubt that the strains and other causes 
above mentioned have a tendency to make good iron 
become brittle and liable to snap suddenly under the 
same treatment that would originally have torn it, 
gradually, and to this extent a change is produced 
in its nature. This snapping, and not the fatigue of 
the metal, is however the direct cause of the crys- 
talline fracture, which is but a necessary consequence 
of the suddenness of the breaking, and not a property 
of the iron itself. To say it snaps readily because it 
has become crystalline is to confound the cause with 
the effect. It is erroneous to say the fibrous nature 
has passed out of the iron, for its ductility can, to 
some extent at least, be restored, in most cases, by 
simply heating to a bright red, and slowly cooling 
the iron, or, failing that, by hammering or rolling it 
while hot. By heating to redness and suddenly 
cooling a piece of wrought-iron, it will become liable 
to snap, producing the same effect as cold hammer- 
ing. The explanation of this is not clear, and it 
may be owing to the loosening of the crystals, into 
which the composition of the material ultimately 
resolves itself. To this cause may also be attributed 
the same tendency to snap after long-continued jar- 
ring, or alternate expansion and contraction. 

It may be asserted, without fear of contradiction, 
that all boiler-plate worthy of the name is fibrous; 
whether its hardness makes it liable to snap, and 


therefore appear crystalline, depends on its original 
23 * 


270 USE AND ABUSE OF 


character and the treatment it has undergone. No 
fine iron can, however, by any treatment, except 
burning, be made to appear coarse, and the fibres of 
the poorer descriptions of iron cannot, without re- 
fining, be made to appear fine and close-grained. It 
is from a want of knowledge of the above facts that 
false opinions are so often expressed respecting the 
qualities of boiler-plates. 

It is no unusual thing to find intelligent mechan- 
ics and boiler-makers expressing their opinions at 
coroners’ inquests on the quality of the iron in 
exploded boilers, without anything to base their 
opinions on except the load per square inch required 
to tear the plates asunder; they seem to forget that 
if the boiler be an old one, that the age, the position 
in the boiler in which the rent has taken place, the 
amount of strain to which it has been exposed, and 
all the circumstances connected with the occurrence, 
should be known in order to decide understandingly 
as to the quality of the iron. It has been shown 
in numerous instances that good ductile iron can be 
made to appear crystalline when pulled asunder in 
the testing-machine, by confining the minimum sec- 
tional area where fracture will occur to one point or 
to a very short length. 

The general conclusions, with regard to boiler 
material, which may be regarded as established from 
experiments, observation, and practice, thus far seem 
to be — 1st. That the laws of resistance of the parts 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 271 


of boilers to the internal pressure are sufficiently well 
established. 2d. It is of the utmost importance that 
the materials employed should be of the best quality 
as regards strength and durability ; and as there are 
but few manufacturers of boiler-plates, the inspection 
of materials, especially boiler-plates, should be made 
by competent persons appointed for that purpose, at 
the place of manufacture, which inspection should 
extend to the qualities of ores and the process of 
manufacture; the required stamps, brands, or certifi- 
cates being put on or authorized by the inspectors in 
person. There is much greater certainty of securing 
the best materials by an inspection of the process of 
working and the raw materials employed, than by 
an inspection of plates after they have been sent to 
market, when, judging from all external appearances, 
good and bad plates are not easily distinguished. 

Practical limits to the thickness of boiler-plates. 
The proper strength of boilers, in order to enable 
them to withstand with safety the required pressure 
of the steam, is a matter of much importance as re- 
gards both life and property ; and the responsibility 
of the proprietors and constructors of boilers is of 
so grave a character as to justify the devotion of a 
much larger space to this subject than is convenient 
in this work. The principles on which the strength 
of all boilers, of whatever material, depend, may be 
expressed in a very few words —the strength being 
directly as the thickness of the metal, and inversely 
as the diameter of the boiler. 


972 USE AND ABUSE OF 


So long as the quality of boiler iron remains as it 
is at present, the thickness of the plate may be prac- 
tically determined within exceedingly narrow limits, 
as a good boiler must be constructed of plate ranging 
in thickness from not less than one-fourth to not 
greater than one-half an inch, as anything less than 
the former cannot be properly calked, and any 
thickness greater than the latter is difficult to rivet 
without the aid of machinery. A thickness of three- 
eighths seems to have become the standard thickness 
for all diameters of boilers intended to sustain a high 
pressure ; this, perhaps, arises from the fact that 
boiler-makers seem to be better acquainted with the 
practical limit to the strength of that thickness, 
because it has, of late years, been used more than 
any other; nevertheless, for steel, of some of the 
higher grades of American plate, a less thickness 
will suffice for the same pressure. 


STEEL. 


As steel is likely to be universally adopted asa 
material for boiler-shells, it is unnecessary to look 
forward to any further progress in the direction of 
obtaining a stronger material. Therefore, any effort 
to increase the strength of boilers should be directed 
to the selection of the best material, and to the most 
practical methods of disposing of it. 

Steel seems to meet the demand for the new mate- 


THE STEAM-BOILER., 2738 


rial, and has been able, under very varying cir- 
cumstances, within the past seven or eight years, 
to establish its superiority over iron or copper. 
In comparing the properties of steel and iron 
plates, there can be no doubt that the processes 
employed in the production of .cast-steel are im- 
mensely superior to those employed in the manu- 
facture of wrought-iron, for insuring a uniform 
texture in the material. Cast-steel plates, made 
from a fluid mass run into a single ingot, and when 
well worked under the hammer, are likely to be 
perfectly homogeneous and free from the imperfect 
welds and internal defects caused by the presence of 
cinder and slag, either of which is frequently found 
even in the best-puddled iron, which, being built up 
of numerous small pieces, all more or less properly 
welded together, is entirely dependent upon the skill 
and care exercised in its production for its homo- 
geneity and freedom from lamination, blisters, and 
other internal defects. 

It was probably the high degree of tenacity and 
ductility, exhibited by tool- and spring-steel, that 
first drew attention to the advantages offered by this 
material for the construction of steam-boilers. Its 
high price, however, long stood in the way of its 
being largely adopted; and this obstacle was only 
removed by the introduction of new methods of 
manufacture, which can as yet be termed improve- 


ments only with respect to their commercial success, 
8 


274 USE AND ABUSE OF 


and not as affecting the quality of the material. 
There can be little doubt that the adoption of steel 
for boiler-plates has been retarded by the want of 
knowledge of its properties, and the consequent diffi- 
culty sometimes met with in working it. The result: 
of this is a disposition on the part of the great major- 


"ity of boiler-makers to avoid using it as much as 


possible. 

It has been found by experiment with different 
qualities of steel-plates that. toughness is incompati- 
ble with great tensile strength, and these two quali- 
ties may be considered as being in the inverse ratio 
to each other. If it becomes necessary to have steel 
with a tensile strength of from 90,000 to 100,000 
pounds, it will be found to be hard and brittle,.and, 
therefore, not adapted for boiler-plates. In order to 
insure freedom from brittleness, a tensile strength 
of from 60,000 to 80,000 pounds is the maximum 
that can be allowed. The high degree of tensile 
strength exhibited by steel-plates allows the use, 
with safety, of this material thinner than either iron 
or copper, thus reducing the weight, and rendering 
the difference iu first cost of material an item of less 
magnitude than is usually supposed. Besides the 
weight saved by using steel — often a most impor- 
tant consideration — it may be urged that the thinner 
plates will conduct the heat more rapidly, and give 


a correspondingly superior evaporative efficiency. 


This superiority is not, strictly speaking, in. propor- 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 275 


tion to the reduction of thickness, since the relative 
conducting powers of steel and iron are about 244 
and 218. Then the density and perfect homogeneity 
of steel render it nearly impervious to the action of 
sulphur and other foreign ingredients existing in 
coal and water, which have proved so destructive to 
iron and copper. 

Effect of Punching on Steel-plates.— One of the 
principal results obtained, both from experiments 
and experience of the material in actual riveted 
work, is that steel-plates of average suitable quality 
are more injured than wrought-iron plates by punch- 
ing. It is chiefly ship-builders to whom _ boiler- 
makers are indebted for exact experimental knowl- 
edge. on the behavior of steel-plates in the process 
of punching. 


STRENGTH OF IRON BOILER-PLATE. 


Although there is great variation in the tensile | 
strength of rolled iron boiler-plate, since that of good 
plate will average about 50,000 pounds per square | 
inch, if the strain is applied in the direction of the 
“grain” or the fibres of the iron (or the direction 
in which it has been rolled), and about ten per cent. 
less if the strain is applied crosswise of the grain, 
it has, however, been found by experiment that, 
when a tensile strain is applied to a bar of iron or 
other material, it is stretched a certain amount in 


276 USE AND ABUSE OF 


proportion to the length of the bar and to the degree 
of strain to which. it is subjected. It is found that 
if this strain does not exceed about one-fifth of that 
which would break the bar, it will recover its orig- 
inal length, or will contract after being stretched, 
when the strain is removed. 

The greatest strain which any material will bear, 
without being permanently stretched, is called its 
limit of elasticity; and so long as this is not ex- 
ceeded, no appreciable permanent elongation or 
“set” will be given to iron by any number of appli- 
eations of such strains or loads. If, however, the 
limit of elasticity be exceeded, the metal will be per- 
manently elongated, and this elongation will be in- 
creased by repeated applications of the strain, until 
finally the bar will break. 

At the same time, the character of the metal will 
be altered by the repeated application of strains 
greater than its elastic limit, and it will become 
brittle and less able to resist a sudden strain, and 
will ultimately break short off. It is, therefore, 
unsafe to subject iron, or, in fact, any other material, 
to strains greater than its elastic limit. This limit 
for iron boiler-plates may be taken at about one-fifth 
its breaking, or, as it is called, ultimate strength. 
It should be remembered, however, in this connec- 
tion, that it often happens that the steam pressure is 
not the greatest force the boiler must withstand, as 
sudden or unequal expansion and contraction are 


THE STEAM-BOILER. Qe 


probably more destructive, to locomotive boilers 
especially, than the pressure of the steam. , 

The manufacture of boiler-plates is carried on 
very extensively in the United States, especially in 
Pennsylvania. American iron is naturally stronger 
and tougher than the English, bearing an average 
tensile strain of from 60,000 to 70,000 pounds per 
square inch, while the best Yorkshire iron bears 
only about 56,000 pounds to a square inch, and the 
Staffordshire about 44,800 pounds. The mean ten- 
sile strength of American cast-iron has been deter- 
mined with considerable care by means of experi- 
ments conducted for the United States Government. 
Major Wade, of the U. 8S. Ordnance Corps, found 
that the mean tensile strength of American cast-iron 
was 31,829 pounds per square inch of section ; while 
the tensile strength of the English cast-iron, as 
determined by Mr. Hodgkinson for the railway 
companies, is very much inferior to this — being but 
19,484 pounds to the square inch. 


DEFINITIONS AS APPLIED TO BOILERS AND 
BOILER MATERIALS. 


Cohesion is that quality of the particles of a body 
which causes them to adhere to each other, and to 
resist being torn apart. 

Curvilinear Seams.— The curvilinear seams of a 


boiler are those around the circumference. 
24 


278 USE AND ABUSE OF 


Elasticity is that quality which enables a body te 
return to its original form after having been dis- 
torted, or stretched, by some external force. 

Internal Radius.— The internal radius is 1 of the 
diameter less the thickness of the iron. To find the 
internal radius of a boiler, take 4 of the external 
diameter and subtract the thickness of the iron. 

Limit of Elasticity.— The extent to which any 
material may be stretched without receiving a per- 
manent “ set.” 

Longitudinal Seams.— The seams which are par- 
allel. to the length of a boiler are called the Jongi- 
tudinal seams. 

Strength is the resistance which a body opposes 
to a disintegration or separation of its parts. 

Tensile strength is the absolute resistance which 
a body makes to being torn apart by two forces 
acting in opposite directions. 

Crushing strength is the resistance which a body 
opposes to being battered or flattened down by any 
weight placed upon it. 

Transverse strength is the resistance to bending, 
or flexure, as it is called. 

Torsional strength is the resistance which a body 
offers to any external force which attempts to twist 
it round. 

Detrusive strength is the resistance which a body 
offers ‘to being clipped or shorn into two parts by 
such instruments as shears or scissors. 


—- < 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 279 


Resilience, or toughness, is another form of the 
quality of strength; it indicates that a body will 
manifest a certain degree of flexibility before it can 
be broken; hence, that body which bends or yields 
most at the time of fracture is the toughest. 

Working Strength.— The term “working 
strength” implies a certain reduction made in the 
estimate of the strength of materials, so that, when 
the instrument or machine is put to use, it may be 
capable of resisting a greater strain than it is ex- 
pected on the average to sustain. 

Safe Working Pressure, or Safe Load.—The safe 
working pressure of steam-boilers is generally taken 
as 1 of the bursting pressure, whatever that may be. 

Strain in the direction of the grain, means strain 
in the direction in which the iron has been rolled; 
and in the process of manufacturing boiler-plates, the 
direction in which the fibres of the iron are stretched 
as it passes between the rolls. ; , 

Stress.—By the term “stress” is meant the force 
which acts directly upon the particles of any mate- 
rial to separate them. — 

There is another property of boiler materials 
which has been named “fatigue of metals.” It 
refers to that ultimate tendency to wear out, from 
which material and inanimatesubstances seem no more 
exempt than living creatures. It may be explained, 
perhaps, by the “stretch,” and consequent weaken- 
ing, which experiments establish as a quality of the 


~ 


280 USE AND ABUSE OF 


toughest iron. The following are the results of a 
series of experiments made by Captain Rodman, at 
the United States Arsenal at Watertown, upon the 
iron manufactured by a well-known firm in Balti- 
more. A square inch of the best flange iron was 
subjected to the various strains mentioned, with such 
results, as to temporary and permanent stretch, as 
are shown in the annexed columns :— 








: Temp’y Stretch. |Permanent Stretch. 
sca mia Sa gk poss of an inch. Pores of an inch. 
O00 ba... sattare oeek: 20 0 
HGO00 FOL oiled 41 1 
CATO ie Siar perk se 57 1 
BB ODO. craig bin cates 76 3 
DS H60' aS 100 7 
ROD, cg Sire ci 537 408 
BODO) 8 heres dees ag J8RS 1661 





Bp oom ere alae 4000 





It will be seen from the above table that the first 
essay, by means of a strain of 5,000 lbs., produced 
no permanent stretch in the bar; and that 10,000 
Ibs. and 15,000 Ibs., respectively, only produced a 
permanent stretch of ;4°% of an inch, or about 4 of 
the temporary stretch. But in the next two strains 
of 20,000 and 25,000 lbs., the iron begins to show a 
great acceleration of the weakening process or in- 
crease of fatigue, for now the permanent strain has 
sprung up to ; of the entire stretch. In the two 


- 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 281 


next items this acceleration is astounding, the perma- 
nent stretch being 3 of the whole upon 30,000 lbs., 
and ,% of the permanent stretch of 35,000 lbs. 


PUNCHED AND DRILLED HOLES FOR BOILER 
SEAMS, 


Punching rivet holes, according to Fairbairn’s 
experiments, is in itself a cause of weakness. Not 
only is the section of the plate in the line of the 
strain reduced by the area of the holes, but the plate 
between the holes is not so strong per square inch 
as the solid plate. The excessive strain of. the 
punch appears to disturb the molecular arrange- 
ment of the metal, and to start fractures which, in 
case of stay-bolts, often radiate in every direction, 
allowing corrosion to take place, and ultimately 
causing the bolts to pull out of the plate. 

In eight experiments by Fairbairn, the highest 
strength of plate experimented upon was 61,579 lbs., 
and the lowest 43,805 lbs., per square inch ; but with 
the same plates, after punching, the strength per 
square inch varied between.45,743 lbs. and 36,606 
lbs. The average of the two experiments, there- 
tore, showed a loss of 10,896 lbs. per square inch, 
due to the jar and strain of punching, in addition te 
the loss of section through the holes. 

In the process of punching, from a want of ac- 
curacy in laying off the holes, through ignorance 

* 


282 USE AND ABUSE OF 


or neglect of workmen, the holes do not come opposite, 
sometimes half, their diameter; they are then drifted 
until the sheet is fractured, and the material partly 
destroyed.* This habit cannot be too much repre- 
hended, and the use of drift-pins, although consid- 
ered indispensable by many good boiler-makers, is 
productive of great evils. As a result, when the 
rivets are driven, it is almost impossible to make 
them fill the holes, and consequently an undue 
strain will come upon some of the rivets, while upon 
others there will be very little. In that case, there 
is danger of shearing off the rivet upon which the 
extra strain comes, inducing a strain upon the ad- 
joining holes, and thus starting a rupture, which will 
ultimately result in the destruction of the boiler. 
The usual arguments in favor of punching are 
a saving of from one-third to one-sixth of time and 
labor, as compared with drilling — a most conclusive 
argument with the manufacturer; but it is argued, 
on the other hand, that the positions of the holes 
marked off from the overlapping plate can be pre- 
served more faithfully with the drill than with the 
punch. This, doubtless, is a very strong argument, 
as it is well known that half-blind holes are the bane 
of boiler-making. But it must be understood that* 
the quality of the plate has an important influence 
on its manner of bearing the severe treatment it 
undergoes at the hands of the punching-machine. 
* See page 231. 


THE STEAM-BOILER, 283 


Inferior and badly refined plates, being brittle, suffer 
toa much greater extent than those of better and 
-more ductile quality. In fact, punching a hole at 
the usual distance from the edge (oné diameter 
clear) in an inferior plate will often produce fracture. 
The violence done to the plate may be seen more 
clearly by considering the force requisite to punch 
it. It has been found by experiment that the resist- 
ance of a wrought-iron plate to punching is about 
the same as its resistance to tearing by a tensile 
strain. Recent experiments authorized by the United 
States Government, at the Washington Navy-Yard, 
establish the fact that drilled holes for boiler-seams 
are nineteen per cent. stronger than holes that are 
punched. From this it is obvious that the rivet-holes 
for all longitudinal seams of steam-boilers should be 
drilled. The curvilinear seams, being subjected to © 
only about half the strain of the longitudinal, might 
be punched. It is also worthy of note that, while 
the punched plate is weaker than the drilled plate, 
the rivets in the punched holes do not shear so easily 
as those in the drilled holes. This is probably due 
to the edges of the drilled holes being sharper and 
more compact, and consequently more capable of 
shearing than the edges left by a punch. 
_ Experiments on drilled and punched holes have 
shown conclusively that rivets in drilled holes, sub- 
ject to shearing strain, were about four per cent. 
weaker than rivets in punched holes, under similar 


& 


284 USE AND ABUSE OF 


strain, and that the sharp edges of the drilled holes 
have a greater tendency to nip off the rivets than 
the rounded edges of the punched holes. In com- 
paring the strength of punched and drilled work, 
it was found, First, that drilled plates are 19 per 
cent. stronger than punched; second, that rivets 
are 4 per cent. stronger in punched holes than 
in drilled; third, that there is a difference of 15 per 
cent. in favor of drilled work. 

The following table shows the result of experi- 
ments on strips of boiler-iron cut from the same 
plate, two being punched and two drilled, with one 
inch holes, having a sectional area at the reduced 
part of 12 square inches. 








BREAKING WEIGHT IN TONS. 





Difference per 
cent. in favor 
of drilled. 


Difference in 
tons, 





Drilled bar. |Punched bar. 


Ist. | 304 | 26 | 41 | Lee 

2d. 314 26 Bi 21 
Mean. | 31 | 26 | 5 | 19 | 
The following are the results of experiments to 


test the difference in value between rivets in punched 
holes and similar rivets in drilled holes :— 


Experiment. 




















3 inch Rivets in Drilled Holes. 


First, single shear = 26 tons per square inch. 
double shear = 39.2 tons. 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 285 


Second, single shear = 26.4 tons per square inch. 
double shear, experiment failed. 


& inch Rivets in Punched Holes. 


First, single shear = 27.2 tons per square inch. 
double shear = 

Second, single. shear = 26 tons per square ae 
double shear, experiment failed. 








It is generally assumed that plates of fair quality, 
having a tenacity of 42,000 pounds per square inch, 
cannot be relied upon to bear more than 32,000 to 
34,000 pounds per square inch of section left be- 
tween holes in ordinary steam-tight riveted joints, 
which would be equivalent to about 24 and 20 per 
cent. loss of strength. This is about a maximum 
loss for hard plates of average equality ; but many 
soft plates do not suffer more than from 5 to 10 per 
cent. loss of strength; with the holes punched a whole 
diameter, clear of the edge, and at the second row 
of rivets, in double-riveting, do not suffer so much. 
The damage by punching diminishes as the distance 
of the hole from the edge increases; consequently, 
some boiler-makers, who prefer punching to drilling, 
have their plates cut about half an inch larger than 
their finished size, in order to keep the holes at a safe 
distance from the edge in punching; the surplus 


material being afterwards either chipped or planed 
off. 


286 USE AND ABUSE OF 


Welding the seams of boilers would be of im- 
mense advantage, since the welded joint is nearly 
twice as strong as the riveted joint; and since twice 
as much steam pressure is exerted on the longi- 
tudinal seams of the cylinder of a boiler as on its 
circular seams, the right proportion of strength 
would be preserved by welding the former and rivet- 
ing the latter. The following advantages would 
be acquired by welding the seams of boilers :— 
Ist. It would cheapen the cost of construction, by 
saving much of the time occupied in riveting, and 
all that consumed in calking; 2d. The full strength | 
of the plates being preserved, a thinner material would 
suffice; 38d. Much higher pressure could be carried 
without increasing the weight of the boiler; 4th. 
There would be no double thickness of plate to pro- 
mote unequal expansion; 5th. Where the greatest 
strain would occur there would be no caps or joints, 
and consequently there would be no leakage. 


Rad 69s Bem SY 
SHOWING THE STRENGTH OF WELDED BOILER-PLATES. 





he dth nas fe | Broke | Broke Breaking Strength in Lbs. per 





in Square Inch. 























Ce Tested. | Weld. Solid. Least. | Greatest. Mean. 
| i A pond Pe a 5 8 f § 33,000 | 47,600 | 40,400. 
wae 4 md g 39,200 | 44,400 | 42,000 
13 f 4 1 8 36,000 | 47,000 | 43,400 

















Total.) 23 | 33,000 | 47,600 | 40,600 





THE STEAM-BOILER. 287 


PATENT BOILERS. 


The patent boilers not described and illustrated 
in this book, are the “ Blanchard,” ‘‘ Lowe,” ‘“ How- 
ard,” “ Anderson,” “Kelly,” and “Lynde.” They 
belong to the same class as the Moorhouse, Wiegand, 
Root, Allen, Harrison, etc., and differ from them 
only in the number of parts, as the principle at- 
tempted to be embodied in the design of sectional or 
patent boilers appears to be the same in all, although 
attempts have been frequently made to show that 
their design was based on some new principle in the 
generation of steam, which, on examination, would 
be found to be only a vagary of the designer or in- 
ventor, an alteration from some former design, or at 
best only a slight improvement on some generator 
already in use. This appears to be the age of boil. 
ers; inventors are continually taxing their brains to 
produce new steam-boilers, but so far most of their 
productions have either proved a failure or a very 
poor investment. 


THE GALLOWAY BOILER. 
The shells of the Galloway boilers (English) are 


made of Bessemer steel, generally 3 of an inch thick. 
They have two furnaces to each boiler, composed of 
steel rings flanged and riveted together in such a 
manner that no seam or rivet comes in contact with 
the fire. The inside of the boiler is composed of an 


288 USE AND ABUSE OF THE STEAM-BOILER. 


oval flue, in which are placed a number of conical 
water-tubes, having the smaller end at the bottom 
and the larger at the top. These tubes serve as 
braces for the large flue, and on account of their 
shape afford easy access for the steam in its escape 
from the heating-surface to the steam-room. 

Along the inside of the flue is a series of bafflers, 
which alter the direction of the heated gases from 
the furnaces to the chimney, and cause them to 
impinge on the water-tubes, thus increasing the heat- 
' ing surface. These boilers are claimed to be very 
efficient, and capable of evaporating 102 pounds of 
water to one pound of coal, which, if true, has been fre- 
quently not only claimed, but accomplished in this 
country by boilers of more modest pretensions. The 
circumstances under which such wonderful evapora- 
tive capacity is developed, are rarely ever explained, 
and if investigated, it would probably be found that 
they were all very favorable to the boiler, possibly 
when the plates were new, clean, and free from in- 
crustation, the fuel of the best quality, the com- 
bustion as perfect as possible, and the management 
of the most intelligent and experienced character. 

The Galloway boiler owes its reputation in Eng- 
land to circumstances other than its efficiency, dura- 
bility, and economy. It is expensive to build, and 
also to repair, as it requires special appliances for 
either purpose. Such boilers are not at all adapted 
to this country, nor is it possible ever to introduce 
them here to any extent. 


Mf HE engineer’s duty, in the performance 

of the daily routine, involves the applica- 
tion of the laws of Nature in various ways. 
To build a fire intelligently ts a chemical 
experiment, involving a knowledge of the 
principles of combustion. The production of 
steam, and its wse as a motive power, depend, 
upon other laws equally impertant and in: 
. teresting’. . 
25 T 289 


290 USE AND ABUSE OF 


STRENGTH OF RIVETED SEAMS. 


The strength of a riveted seam depends very 
much upon the arrangement and proportion of the 
rivets; but, with the best design and construction, 
the seams are always weaker than the solid plate, as 
it is always necessary to cut away a part of the plate 
for the rivet holes, which weakens the holes in three 
ways :— lst, by lessening the amount of material to 
resist the strains; 2d, by weakening that left be- 
tween the holes; 3d, by disturbing the uniformity 
of the distribution of the strains. The first cause of 
weakness will appear obvious on the inspection of an 
ordinary boiler-seam, owing to the fact that forty- 
four per cent. of the original strength of the material 
had to be removed by the punch or drill to make 
way for the rivets. The second cause of the reduc- 
tion of strength is owing to the injury sustained by 
the plates during the process of drilling and punch- 
ing. The third cause of weakness is owing to the 
fact that if one or more holes are made in a plate of 
any material, and it is then subjected to a tensile 
strain, the strain, instead of being equally distributed 
through the section left between the holes, will be 
greatest in that part of the metal nearest it. 

The strength of boiler seams may be calculated 
by taking the area, in square inches, of the metal 
between the holes, and multiplying it by the ultumate 
_ strength of the metal, after the holes are punched. 


THE STEAM-BOILER, 291 


Single-riveted seams being equal to 56 per cent. of the 
original strength, and double-riveted seams 70 per cent. 


COMPARATIVE STRENGTH OF SINGLE- AND 
DOUBLE-RIVETED SEAMS. 


On comparing the strength of plates with riv- 
eted joints, it will be necessary to examine the sec- 
tional areas, taken in a line through the rivet-holes, 
with the section of the plates themselves. It is 
obvious that in perforating a line of holes along the 
edge of a plate, we must reduce its strength. It is 
also clear that the plate so perforated will be to the 
plate itself nearly as the areas of their respective 
sections, with a small deduction for the irregularities 
of the pressure of the rivets upon the plate; or, in 
other words, the joint will be reduced in strength 
somewhat more than in the ratio of its section 
through that line to the solid section of the plate. 
It is also evident that the rivets cannot add to the 
strength of the plates, their object being to keep the 
two surfaces of the lap in contact. 

When this great deterioration of strength at the 
joint is taken into account, it cannot but be of the 
greatest importance that in structures subject to such 
violent strains as boilers, the strongest method of 
riveting should be adopted. To ascertain this, a 
long series of experiments was undertaken by Mr. 
Fairbairn. There are two kinds of lap-joints, single- 


292 USE AND ABUSE OF 


and double-riveted, as shown in Figs. 1 and 2 on 
opposite page. In the early days of steam-boiler 
construction, the former were almost universally 
employed, but the greater strength of the latter has 
since led to their general adoption for all boilers 
intended to sustain a high steam pressure. A riveted 
joint generally gives way either by shearing off the 
rivets in the middle of their length, or by tearing 
through one of the plates in the line of the rivets. __ 

In a perfect joint, the rivets should be on the 
point of shearing just as the plates were about to 
tear; but, in practice, the rivets are usually made 
slightly too strong. Hence, it is an established rule 
to employ a certain number of rivets per linear foot, 
which, for ordinary diameters and average thickness 
of plate, are about six per foot or two inches from 
centre to centre; for larger diameters and heavier 
iron the distance between the centres is generally 
increased to, say two and one-eighth or two and 
one-fourth inches; but in such cases it is also neces- 
sary to increase the diameter of the rivet, for while 
five-eighth, or even half-inch, rivets will answer for 
small diameters and light plate, with large diameters 
and heavy plate experience has shown it to be neces- 
sary to use three-fourth to seven-eighth rivets. 

If these are placed in a single row, the rivet-holes 
so nearly approach each other that the strength of 
the plates is much reduced; but if they are arranged 
in two lines, a greater number may be used, more 


THE STEAM-BOILER., 293 


space left between the holes, and greater strength 
and stiffness imparted to the plates at the joint. 
Taking the value of the plate, before being punched, 
at 100, by punching the plate it loses 44 per cent. of 
its strength; and, as a result, single-riveted seams 
are equal to 56 per cent., and double-riveted seams 
to 70 per cent. of the original strength of the plate. 
It has been shown by very extensive experiments at 
the Brooklyn Navy-Yard, and also at the Stevens 
Institute of Technology, Hoboken, N. J., that double- 
riveted seams are from 16 Fig. 1, | 

to 20 per cent. stronger than 


single-riveted seams — the SS > ose 
material and workmanship i moe 
being the same in both cases. 3 


Fig, 2. 


900 Q 
ao 070 0°9"9 ) 


HAND- AND MACHINE-RIVETING, 


Taking the strength of the 
NPARE SAtivecs ls. Lc crcovbocbkattedss 100 
The strength of the double- 
riveted joint would then be 70 
And the strength of the single- 
riveted would be.............. 56 











The two methods most generally employed in 
uniting the riveted seams of steam-boilers are what 
are termed machine- and hand-riveting. In the former 
process, the rivet is upset with a single blow; while 
in the latter, the material is spread or distributed by 

25 * 


294 USE AND ABUSE OF 


a series of blows from hand-hammers. In the pro- 
cess of hand-riveting, the heads are rarely finished 
till the iron is cool enough to erystallize or crack 
under the head by the heavy blows of the hammer, 
and if the material be not of superior quality, will 
frequently snap off under rough usage. 

The evil of the rivet not filling the hole well is 
sometimes aggravated in hand-work by the blows 
being dealt on the circumference of the point, in 
order to form a shoulder speedily to resist the ham- 
mering, instead of letting them fall dead on the 
point, which should tend to make the rivet first fill 
the hole before the shoulder is formed. The advan- 
tage of machine-riveting is that the machine upsets 
the rivet and closes up the hole better than hand- 
riveting, as the dead, heavy pressure is exerted 
through the whole mass of the rivet, and the effect 
is not concentrated upon the point, as it must be with 
a succession of light, sharp blows from a hammer. 
Then again, as the piston of the machine is not 
limited in its movements, it will follow the rivet 
home, drawing the plates well together, filling. the 
holes, and making the work equally good, whether 
the rivet is half an inch too long or half an inch 
too short, thus accomplishing what no workman 
could possibly do. 

In machine-riveting, the heading is done on the 
“capping” system, thus gathering the metal to- 
gether instead of scattering it, as is the case with 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 295 


the hand hammer. When it becomes necessary to 
take work apart, where the rivets have been driven, 
it is shown that the holes are thoroughly filled, and 
it is also found almost impossible to dislodge the 
rivets from the holes, while the holes were not more 
stretched than if the riveting had been done by 
hand. The shearing strain is less on machine- 
riveted joints than on those riveted by hand, on ac- 
count of the compactness of the rivets in the holes, 
and the great friction between the sheets at the lap, 
induced by the power of the machine. Another 
great advantage of steam-riveting is its quickness 
and cheapness, while the rivets and plates are left 
soft and free from any crystallization. The general 
conclusion drawn from practicai experience and 
observation is, that for good, sound boiler-work 
machine-riveting is the best. 


COUNTER-SUNK RIVETS, 


Counter-sunk rivets are generally tighter than 
any other form of rivet, because counter-sinking the 
hole is really facing it; and the counter-sunk rivet 
is, in point of fact, made on a faced joint. But 
counter-sinking the hole also weakens the plate, in- 
asmuch as it takes away a portion of the metal, and 
should only be resorted to where necessary, — such 
as around the fronts of furnaces, the flanges inside 
of combustion-chambers, and the bottom flanges of 


296 USE AND ABUSE OF 


steam-chests. In these places it is by no means det- 
rimental ; but no part of the shell of a boiler, except 
those already mentioned, should be counter-sunk. 


RIVETS. 


The rivet is the means most generally, if not al- 
together, employed for 
uniting the seams of 
steam-boilers; aud it nay 
be taken as a rule, that 
j in any but the best class 
of work the rivet is 

stronger than the plate 
section between the holes. In old. boilers particu- 
larly, the plates at the joints are generally found to 
be much more brittle than the rivets, and the rivets, 
except at the heads, will escape corrosion, where the 
plate may suffer severely. It has been found by ex- 
periment that the strength of rivets of various sizes 
and descriptions in ordinary riveted work averaged 
37,640 lbs. for single shear, and 34,000 Ibs. for 
double shear per square inch of sectional area. The 
shearing strength of iron rivets with thin steel plates 
has been found to be less than with plates of the 
same strength. This is probably due to the harder 
steel cutting into the iron of the rivet. The aver- 
age of eight experiments with steel plates and iron 
rivets gave 37,000 lbs. per square inch. 


























oe 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 297 


The strength of riveted seams may be calculated 
by Multiplying the area in square inches of one rivet 
by the number of rivets, and the product by the strength 
of the metal to resist shearing. 


TABLE 


SHOWING DIAMETER AND PITCH OF RIVETS FOR DIFFERENT 
THICKNESSES OF PLATE. 





























SINGLE-RIVETED SEAMS. DouBLE-RIVETED SEAMS. 
Thickness} Diameter Pitch Thickness} Diameter 
of Plate. | of Rivet. of Plate. | of Rivet. 

+ in.| 4 in.} 14 in: + in.} 4 in. 
> 6“ 5B & 13 6“ vs (q 4 “ 
ry 6“ re 74 1? “ce 3 73 4h bc 
| ie aL 3 6 lz «& re one “ns 66 
1s “ 4 (14 3 “ A: ““c H “ 

2 4 les 2 4 
aint ‘“c 2 6c 24 “cc q's 6“ é 6c 
ts (74 a, (79 91 (79 5 (74 é 73 
ri 6é u 6c at 6“ rh cc rs 6c 
2-3 6 1 66 4 “c -. 6 1 “ 
in ‘“ : pes 21 “ rw “ yyy te 
oe 6c 1 (79 941 c¢ i 6c 1 (73 
13 (73 Ki 66 gt (7 43 (a4 1} “ 
74 1 4c 1 (9 <¢ (74 








STRENGTH OF STAYED AND FLAT BOILER 
SURFACES. 


The sheets that form the sides of fire-boxes are 
necessarily exposed to a vast pressure, therefore 
some expedient has to be devised to prevent the 
metal at these parts from bulging out. Stay-bolts 


298 USE AND ABUSE OF 


are generally placed at a distance of 43 inches from 
centre to centre, all over the surface of fire-boxes, 
and thus the expansion or bulging of one side is 
prevented by the stiffness or rigidity of the other. 
Now, in an arrangement of this kind, it becomes 
necessary to pay considerable attention to the tensile 
strength of the stay-bolts employed for the above. 
purpose, since the ultimate strength of this part of 
the boiler is now transferred to them, it being im- 
possible that the boiler-plates should give way unless 
the stay-bolts break in the first instance. 

Accordingly, all the experiments that have bcen 
made, by way of test, of the strength of stay-bolts, 
possess the greatest interest for the practical engi- 
neer. Mr. Fairbairn’s experiments are particularly 
valuable. He constructed two flat boxes, 22 inches 
square. The top and bottom plates of one were 
formed of 3-inch copper, and of the other 3-inch 
iron. There was a 23-inch water space to each, with 
12-inch iron-stays screwed into the plates, and 
riveted on the ends. In the first box, the stays were 
placed five inches from centre to centre, and the two 
boxes tested by hydraulic pressure. 

In the copper box, the sides commenced to bulge 
at 450 pounds pressure to the square inch; and at 
810 pounds pressure to the square inch the box 
burst, by drawing the head of one of the stays 
through the copper plate. In the second box, the 
stays were placed at 4-inch centres; the bulging 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 299 


commenced at 515 pounds pressure to the square 
inch. The pressure was continually augmented up 
to 1600 pounds. The bulging between the rivets at 
that pressure was one-third of an inch; but still no 
part of the iron gave way. At 1625 pounds pressure 
the box burst, and in precisely the same way as in 
the first experiment—one of the stays drawing 
through the iron plate, and stripping the thread in 
the plate. These experiments prove a number of 
facts of great value and importance to the engineer. 
In the first place, they show that, with regard to 
iron stay-bolts, their tensile strength is at least equal 
to the grip of the plate. 

The grip of the copper bolt is evidently less. As 
each stay, in the first case, bore the pressure on an 
area of 5x5 == 25 square inches, and in the second 
on an area of 4X4=16 square inches, the total 
strains borne by each stay were, for the first, 815 x 25 
= 20,375 pounds on each stay; and for the second, 
1625 x 16 = 26,000 pounds on each stay. These 
strains were less, however, than the tensile strength 
of the stays, which would be about 28,000 pounds. 
The properly stayed surfaces are the strongest part 
of boilers, when kept in good repair. 


BOILER-STAYS. 


Advantage is usually taken of the self-supporting 
property of the cylinder and sphere, which enables 


300 USE AND ABUSE OF 


them, in most cases, to be made sufficiently strong 
without the aid of stays, or other support. But the 
absence of this self-sustaining property in flat sur- 
faces necessitates their being strengthened by stays, 
or other means. Even where a flat or slightly 
dished surface possesses sufficient strength to resist 
the actual pressure to which it is subjected, it is yet 
necessary to apply stays to provide against undue 
deflection or distortion, which is liable to take place 
to an inconvenient degree, or to result in grooving 
long before the strength of the plates or their attach- 
ments is seriously taxed. . 
_ Boiler-stays, in any case, are but substitutes for 
real strength of construction. They would be of no 
service applied to a sphere subject to internal press- 
ure; and the power of resistance would be exactly 
that of the metal to sustain the strain exerted upon 
all its parts alike. The manner in which stays are 
frequently employed renders them a source of weak- 
ness rather than an element of strength. When the 
strain is direct, the power of resistance of the stay is 
equal to the weight it would sustain without tearing 
it asunder; but when the position of the stay is 
oblique to the point of resistance, any calculation of 
their theoretic strength or value is attended with 
certain difficulties. All boilers should be sufficiently 
stayed to insure safety, and the material of which 
they are made, their shape, strength, number, loca- 
tion, and mode of attachment to the boiler, should be 


THE STEAM-BOILER, 301 


all duly and intelligently considered. Boiler-stays 
should never be subjected to a strain of more than 
one-eighth of their breaking strength. The strength 
of boiler-stays may be calculated by multiplying the 
area in inches, between the stays, by the pressure in 
pounds per square'inch. 


STAY-BOLTS. 


In the choice of material for stay-bolts for the 
furnaces of marine boilers and locomotives, and even 
stationary engines, there are other considerations 
besides that of strength alone. Iron would undoubt- 
edly be superior to any other material that could be 
employed for that purpose, if strength and its facili- 
ties for working were the only objects to be considered; 
but there are two evils that limit the usefulness of 
iron stay-bolts: first, they crystallize; second, they 
corrode. In either case they are likely to snap in 
half under any extraordinary pressure —that is, 
at the very moment when their services are most 
needed. 

Copper has neither of these faults. It has extreme 
tenacity up to a certain point of its working, and hot 
water does not corrode it in the least. Some engi- 
neers have tried the effect of placing iron stays in 
two or three of the upper rows, and copper in the 
lower rows, where the corrosive influence of the 
water is more powerful. But this is opposed to all 

26 


802 USE AND ABUSE OF 


practical experience, since the upper bolts are always 
found to break most frequently from the superior 
expansion of the inner plate; hence, the material 
that will endure the most bending should be em- 
ployed for them. 

Steel stay-bolts have been occasionally employed 
with good effect. When they have a spring temper, 
they seem to stand the effect of contraction and 
expansion better than any other material, since their 
small diameter and great elasticity permit them to 
conform to all moderate variations in the boiler 
caused by ordinary degrees of temperature. The 
safe working strength of copper, iron, and steel stay- 
bolts may be estimated at about one-fifth of the ulti- 
mate strength, which for steel is 80,000, iron 60,000, 
and copper 32,000; but if the screws are cut within 
the original diameter of the bolt, one-tenth of the 
working strength must be deducted. 

The following table shows the result of experi- 
ments on iron and copper stay-bolts screwed and 
riveted into iron and copper plates. rst, a 7-inch 
iron stay with enlarged head, screwed and riveted 
into a $-inch iron plate, failed by breaking through 
the shank with 25,000 pounds, the screw and plate 
remaining uninjured. Second, asimilar arrangement, 
but with a copper plate, failed with a load of 21,400 
pounds, the head tearing off, and the copper threads 
stripping. Third, a -inch iron stay with enlarged 
end screwed into a é-inch copper plate, and not 


THE STEAM-BOILER. . 808 


riveted, was drawn out of the plate by 16,200 pounds, 
the copper thread stripping. ourth, a ¢-inch copper 
stay with enlarged end, screwed and riveted into a ¢- 
inch copper plate, broke through the shank with 
14,400 pounds, after stretching 3% of an inch. 























é Strength dis-|Strength dis- 
eee tribated over wributed over 
ee 25 ae area|16 oi area 
- wou give;/wou rive 
Pounds." Nba, per sq. in./|lbs. per a in, 
Ist. Iron into iron 
screwed and riveted...) 25,000 1,000 1,563 
2d. Iron into copper 
screwed and riveted...) 21,400 856 1,338 
3d. Iron into copper 
screwed only.......c.0 16,200 648 1,013 
4th. Copper into copper 
screwed and riveted. | 14,400 576 900 
CALKING. 


The object of calking is to bring together the 
seams of a boiler, after riveting, so that they may be 
perfectly steam- and water-tight. This is done by 
using a sharp tool ground toa slight angle. The 
edge of the plates being first chipped or planed to an 
angle of about 110°, the calking-tool is then applied 
to the lower edge of the chipped or planed angle, 
in order to drive or upset the edge, thus bringing 
the plates together and rendering the joint, to all 
appearances, perfectly steam-tight, and able to resist 


304 USE AND ABUSE OF 


the internal pressure brought to bear upon this par- 
ticular point. 

The purely mechanical skill required to enable a 
person to join together pieces of metal, and thereby 
form a steam-tight and water-tight joint, was all that 
was heretofore considered necessary, as it had been 
almost universally thought that little more than 
this was needed, and that, provided the joint was 
tightly and well calked, or, in other words, “ made a 
good job of,” was all that was required. But, un- 
fortunately, this is but a small portion of the 
knowledge that should be possessed by persons who 
turn their attention to this subject, and experience 
has shown that persons engaged in this kind of em- 
ployment should 
possess a very dif- 

j ferent kind of 
. LM knowledge, other- 
wise the best ef- 
| forts of the manu- 

ante ule facturer of the 
Ordinary Method of Calking. material engine 
boiler-maker will be rendered useless. 

It is well known that the use of a hammer on 
wrought-iron will granulate, or harden, it to such an 
extent as to make it almost as hard as steel. Now, 
the angled tool before mentioned, through its action 
' (in the process of calking) upon the lower edge of the 
chipped plate, causes a granulation of that plate; 











































































































HELL 


THE STEAM-BOILER, 805 


while the under one is much softer, in consequence 
of not being exposed to the action of the tool, conse- 
quently the skin, or outer surface of the softer mate- 
rial, is indented or cut. _ 

A boiler may be constructed by parties of high 
repute, be made of the best material, and, to all ap- 
pearance, be capable of standing any test that may 
be applied to prove its safety, and yet its durability 
may be very limited, or it may collapse or explode 
soon after being put in use, for the simple reason 
that a cause existed from the very first which could 
not be seen, and which no test could point out, and 
that cause was the grooving or indentation made by 
the calking, which became larger and larger through 
corrosion, expansion, and contraction, thus render- 
ing the plates unfit to resist the strain, which must 
eventually induce rupture or explosion, resulting in 
loss of life and destruction of property. This ten- 
dency to weaken the plates of steam-boilers, by the 
present mode of calking, may be illustrated by very 
familiar examples. | 

When a blacksmith desires to break his bar of 
iron to a given length, he first cuts around the bar, 
weakening it. The breaking is then easily accom- 
plished — frequently with one blow. A glazier sim- 
ilarly uses his diamond. Now, if a bar of iron, which 
has not been cut, be taken and submitted to blows, 
in a majority of cases it will bend to a right angle or 
more without showing any fracture. The explana- 


Pas Wen 


306 USE AND ABUSE OF 


tion of this is, that by cutting a channel through the 
outer layer of fibre, the strain is confined to the point 
where the channel is cut. The fibre on either side, 
to the depth of the channel, is not acted upon at all, 
and exerts no influence as a protection to the under- 
lying layers of fibre. Hence, when the blow is re- 
ceived, the effect is confined to the channel, and the 
fibre, having little or no opportunity to protect itself, 
breaks short off. These illustrations are perfectly 
analogous to that of the cutting or indentation made 
by the old-fashioned calking-tool. 

On examination, steam-boilers are frequently 
found to be fractured along the edge of the outer lap 
of the sheet, both transversely and longitudinally, in 
consequence of a channel being entirely cut through 
the skin of the iron by the calking-tool, thus render- 
ing the plate weak at the point of the greatest strain. 
The force to act is ever present; the iron is already 
strained, as, by bending a sheet of iron to make a 
required circle, the fibres of the iron composing the 
outer circumference must, of necessity, be stretched ; 
and, by imperfect bending, will be stretched laterally 
as well as longitudinally, while the fibres of the iron 
composing the inner circumference are upset, and, if 
badly welded in the act of manufacture, pucker, 
thereby exposing the inside particles of the iron to 
the corrosive action of the acids in the water, pro- 
ducing honey-combing. Thus everything is ready 
for the cutting or grooving to be made — both the 


THE STEAM-BOILER, 807 


strain on the outer, and the puckering on the inner, 
circumference. It then becomes only a mere ques- 
tion of time as to the result. 

Very few, except those familiar with the laws of 
steam, have any idea of the immense pressure 
exerted on the shells of steam-boilers under ress- 
ure; and when we consider that this immense press- 
ure is brought to bear along the lap of the joints — 
the points deviating farthest from the true cylin- 
drical form — the importance of having the iron not 
only of good quality, but free from the defects in- 
duced by inferior calking, must at once be admitted. 
Immense sums of money have been expended in 
experiments, with the object of ascertaining, if pos- 
sible, the cause of boiler explosions, which, if con- 
ducted by competent persons, might have proved, in 
many instances, to be the result of a mischievous 
system of calking. 

The cut on page 308 represents an improved 
method of calking, which is acknowledged by com- 
petent parties to be one of the most important 
improvements ever made in the construction of 
steam-boilers. It is the invention of James W. Con- 
nery, foreman of the Boiler Department at the 
Baldwin Locomotive Works, Philadelphia, and is 
known as Connery’s Concave Calking. By this 
method, the dangers to life and property induced by 
the old system of calking are entirely obviated, as 
even the uninitiated cannot dent or gall the plates 


308 USE AND ABUSE OF 


with Connery’s Patent Calking; the importance of 
which will be’ appreciated by all steam-users, more 
especially when it is known that it is impossible, for 








Connery’s Concave Calking, 


even the most skilful’ boiler-maker, to calk a boiler 
with the old-fashioned calking-tools without perma- 
nent injury to the plates. 


TESTING-MACHINES. 


There is at present in this country a great need 
of cheap, simple, and reliable machinery for the 
purpose of testing the tensile strength of metals, 
particularly boiler-plate ; as it is of great importance 
to steam-users and the public to know exactly what 
strain iron of a certain kind or quality will bear 
without permanent set or fracture. When a boiler 
explodes, it is of great service to be able to test the 
tensile strain of the metal torn asunder, that some 
idea of the force exerted may be estimated, and also 


THE STEAM-BOILER, 3809 


to know whether iron that has been subjected to 
heavy strains for a number of years has become 
“fatigued” or weakened. 

There are few machines in this country adapted 
to this business, and these are very expensive. The 
expense attending their construction, and the com- 
paratively little use to which they are put, have, 
without doubt, stood in the way of their construc- 
tion. If manufacturers and users of iron and other 
metals fully appreciated their value, they would be 
more frequently met with. ‘The materials for 
machines should be tested; and a proper under- 
standing of the exact strength which this material 
will sustain would, no doubt, often lead to improve- 
ment in design and construction. In some cases, 
the whole machine would be lighter, while in others 
it would possess proportions better adapted to sus- 
tain the heavy strains to which it may be subjected. 


FEED-WATER HEATERS. 


Inattention to the temperature of feed-water for . 
boilers is entirely too common, as the saving in fuel 
that may be effected by thoroughly heating the feed- 
water — by means of the exhaust-steam in a properly 
constructed heater — would be immense, as may be 
seen from the following facts : 

A pound of feed-water entering a steam-boiler 
at a temperature of 50° Fah., and evaporating into 


310 USE AND ABUSE OF 


steam of 60 pounds pressure, requires as much heat 
as would raise 1157 pounds of water 1 degree. A 
pound of feed-water raised from 50° Fah. to 220° 
Fah. requires 987 thermal units of heat, which, if 
absorbed from exhaust-steam passing through a 
heater, would be a*tsaving of 15 per cent. in fuel. 
Feed-water, at a temperature of 200° Fah., entering 
a boiler, as compared, in point of economy, with 
feed-water at 50°, would effect a saving of over 18 
per cent. in fuel; and with a well-constructed heater 
there ought to be no trouble in raising the feed-water 
to a temperature of 212° Fah. 

If we take the normal temperature of the feed- 
water at 60°, the temperature of the heated water at 
212°, and the boiler pressure at 20 pounds, the total 
heat imparted to the steam in one case is 1192.5° — 
60° = 1132.5°, and in the other case 1192.5°— 212° 
—= 980.5°, the difference being 152°, or a saving of 
133.5 =138.4 per cent. Supposing the feed-water 
to enter the boiler at a temperature of 32° Fah., each 
pound of water will require about 1200 units of heat 
to convert it into steam, so that the boiler will evap- 
orate between 62 and 74 pounds of water per pound 
of coal. The amount of heat required to convert a 
pound of water into steam varies with the pressure, 
as will be seen by the following table: 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 811 


ACS 
SHOWING THE UNITS OF HEAT REQUIRED TO CONVERT ONE 
POUND OF WATER, AT THE TEMPERATURE OF 32° FAH., 
INTO STEAM AT DIFFERENT PRESSURES. 














Pressure of Pressure of 
ee Gy tach Units of Heat. Oy Batak Units of Heat. 

by Gauge. by Gauge. 

1 1,148. 110 1,187 

10 1,155 120 1,189 

20 1,161 130 1,190 

30 1,165 140 1,192 

40 1,169 150 1,193 

50 1,173 160 1,195 

60 1,176 170 1,196 

70 1,178 180 1,198 





80 1,181 190 1,199 
90 1,183 200 1,200 
100 1,185 | 


If the feed-water has any other temperature, the 
heat necessary to convert it into steam can easily be 
computed. Suppose, for instance, that its tempera- 
ture is 65°, and that it is to be converted into steam 
having a pressure of 80 pounds per square inch. 
The difference between 65 and 82 is 33; and sub- 
tracting this from 1181 (the number of units of heat 
required for feed-water having a temperature of 32°), 
the remainder, 1148, is the number of units for feed- 
water with the given temperature. Yet it must be 
understood that any design of heater that offers such 
resistance to the free escape of the exhaust-steam as 
to neutralize the gain that would otherwise be ob- 


Sip.u* USE AND ABUSE OF 


tained from its use, ought to be avoided, as the loss 
occasioned by back pressure on the exhaust, in many 
instances, counteracts the advantages derived from 
the heating of the feed-water. 

It is a common practice on steamships to heat 
. the feed-water to 135° or 140° before sending it 
into the boiler. Where the jet condenser is used, 
this extra heat is derived from the blow-water; but 
as this means of heating is not available with the 
surface condenser, it is generally derived from a 
water-jacket surrounding the smoke-stack, or a spiral 
pipe within the stack. But although any heat im- 
parted to the feed-water is a clear gain, yet the cost, 
complication, and danger of these arrangements gener- 
ally overbalance the benefits derived from their use. 

The feed-water should be sent into the boiler as 
hot as possible, as, if it be forced in at a low temper- 
ature, it will impinge on that portion of the boiler 
with which it comes in contact; and, as a result of 
the continual expansion and contraction induced by 
the varying temperature of the water, the boiler is 
liable to crack and become leaky. Where economy 
of fuel is no object, as is often the case at coal-mines, 
saw-mills, and wood-working establishments, a very 
inexpensive way of 
averting the dis- 
astrous effects of 
" ees pumping cold water 

Heater Pipe, . into boilers is to 








THE STEAM-BOILER. 313 


introduce the feed-pipe into the back end of the 
boiler, carrying it forward about three-quarters the 
length of the boiler, and then returning it -to the 
back end, where the water is discharged into the 
boiler. - By this arrangement the water will have a 
temperature nearly equal to that of the water in the 
boiler when discharged from the pipe. 

Open feed-water heaters, though very efficient, 
are nevertheless objectionable, and should be avoided 
whenever any better arrangement is attainable. The 
grease from the cylinder mixes with the feed-water 
in such heaters, and on being carried into the boiler 
‘combines with the carbonate of lime, sinks to the 
plates when the boilers are at rest, and is rarely ever 
afterwards moved by the circulation of the water, or 
even the most active boiling currents. By contact 
with the plates the water is kept from their surface, 
and the free transmission of the heat interfered with, 
which induces over-heating and burning of the 
plates. 

All feed-water heaters should be provided with 
the meaus of ascertaining the temperature of feed- 
water. This might be done by placing a hollow 
plug in a T on the feed-pipe, between the heater and 
the boiler, into which the bulb of a thermometer 
might be inserted at any time; and as the plug would 
be exposed to the action of the water in its passage 
from the heater to the boiler, its temperature might 


be easily ascertained. 
27 


314 USE AND ABUSE OF 


GRATE-BARS. 


Perfect combustion is the starting-point in the 
generation of steam; the conversion of coal and air 
into heat must be the first process, and the second is 
to apply that heat with full effect to the boiler. The 
oxygen of the air is the only supporter of combus- 
tion; and the rate of combustion produced, and the 
amount of heat generated in the furnace, depend on 
the quantity of air supplied; and the quantity of air 
admitted depends on the size of the opening through 
which it passes. Then, as a matter of course, the 
grate-bars offering the least obstruction to the air 
passing through them, and affording the largest area 
for the air combined, with an equal distribution of 
the same, must be the best adapted for the purposes 
of combustion. 

The failure of grate-bars is due mainly to three 
different causes — breaking, warping, and burning 
out; consequently, grate-bars, to be durable and 
efficient, should have a narrow surface exposed to 
the fire, the spaces for admitting the air being numer- 
ous and well distributed. The metal constituting 
the bar should be distributed in the best possible 
manner, to relieve the grate from all undue strain 
arising from unequal expansion and contraction ; 
there should also be considerable depth, in order that 
the lower edges may keep cool, and prevent the pos- 
sibility of warping or twisting. Grate-bars of good 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 315 


design and proportions are frequently ruined by 
being exposed to a white heat, whenever a fresh fire 
is started, whereas, by distributing a thin layer of 
fresh coal over their surface before the shavings and 
wood are applied, they may be preserved intact for 
years. The grate-bar has not heretofore received 
the consideration from engineers and steam-users 
which its importance, in an economical point of 
view, so eminently deserves. 


CHIMNEYS. 


The object of a chimney is to convey away 
the smoke, and to produce a draught — that is, 
a current of fresh, dry air through the coals on the 
grate; this draught is produced hy the difference in 
the specific gravity of the air inside and outside of 
the chimney. If the quality of the gases inside and 
' outside were always the same, formule could be 
established for the size of chimneys with a consid- 
erable degree of accuracy. The gases inside of a 
chimney are generally composed of atmospheric air, 
free nitrogen, carbonic acid, carbonic oxide, steam, 
free hydrogen, free carbon, sulphurous acid, and 
other elements. If the relative amount of these 
gases, and their temperature, were always the same, 
there would not be much difficulty in determining 
the proportions; but as these conditions are contin- 
ually changing, as well by the gradual consumption 


316 USE AND ARUSE OF 


of the coai.on the grate as by the management of 
the party in charge, it is impossible to arrive at any 
exact or definite conclu- 
sion. The air outside the 
chimney is also continually 
undergoing changes, pro- 
duced by moisture, temper- 
ature, density, ete. 

For stationary and ma- 
rine boilers the chimneys 
are generally of a uniform 
height, arising from the 
nature of the structures 
with which they are con- 
nected, and hence the ap- 
proximate amount of com- 
bustion on a square foot 
of grate-surface, and the 
resulting evaporation of 
water per hour, are pretty 
well known from practical 
observations. For marine 
boilers, the general rule is 
to allow 14 square inches 
area of chimney for each 
nominal horse-power. For 
stationary boilers, the area 
of the chimney should be one-fifth greater than the 
combined area of all the flues or tubes. In boilers 





THE STEAM--BOILER. 317 


provided with any other means of draught, such as 
a steam-jet or a fan-blower, the dimensions of the 
chimney are not so important as it is in cases where 
the draught is produced solely by the chimney. 

Rule for finding the Required Area of Chimney for 
any Boiler. — Multiply the nominal horse-power of ° 
the boiler by 112, and divide the product by the 
square root of the height of the chimney in feet. 
The quotient will be the required area in square 
inches. 


TABLE 


SHOWING THE PROPER DIAMETER AND HEIGHT OF CHIMNEY 
FOR ANY KIND OF FUEL. 





Nominal Horse- | Height ee Tiahia Diametarat op. | 











power of Boiler. in Feet. 

10 60 1 foot 2 inches. | 
12 75 j Ree 
16 90 Direc, deen 
20 99 Dee RN al 
30 105 Lee aes 
50 120 2feet2 “ 
70 120 Pe Yi Sion 3s; 
90 120 SOP eT esse 
120 135 Oe a ae 
160 150 IER eis 

| 200 | 165 oo Bake aR AS 
250 180 Ln ee SOA 





318 USE AND ABUSE OF 


TABLE 
SHOWING HEIGHTS OF CHIMNEYS FOR PRODUCING CERTAIN 


RATES OF COMBUSTION PER SQUARE FOOT OF AREA OF 
SECTION OF THE CHIMNEY. 





Pounds of Coal Burned 





Pounds of Coal Burned FG 
Heights in Feet, | Pet Hour per Square Root. of Grate. ao nate 
a? Chimn hi as of Grate to Section of 
ue Chimney being 8 to 1. 
60 7.0 
68 8.5 
76 9.5 
84 10.5 
93 11.6 
99 12.4 
105 13.1 
na 13.8 
116 14.5 
121 15.1 
126 15.8 
131 16.4 
135 16.9 
139 17.4 
144 18.0 
148 18.5 
152 19.0 
156 19.5 
160 20.0 





Though the above Table was arranged from data 
collected from what were considered reliable experi- 
ments, yet it may be said to be only approximately 
correct, as the conditions existing in different chim- 
neys and furnaces vary so much that no theoretical 
formuls will give results which can be relied upon 
as strictly correct. According to the experiments 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 319 


of Mr. Isherwood, the best proportion for the 
draught area is } of the area of the grate. Many 
constructors, however, make it greater, amounting 
in some cases to 4 and }.. Others make it less, 4 
being not uncommon. But experience has shown 
1 to be the most practical proportion, and the one 
capable of producing the most satisfactory results. 


SMOKE. 


Ever since the days of Watt, the consumption of 
smoke has attracted the attention of scientists, in- 
ventors, and engineers, but, hitherto, without any 
very practical results, as the methods that offered the 
most plausible solution of the problem involved in 
the burning of smoke have invariably failed to pro- 
duce such results as would warrant their adoption 
and general use. A uniform supply of fuel to the 
furnace, and the introduction of air above the fire, 
were advocated as furnishing a remedy for the loss 
occasioned by smoke; but the former was, in most 
cases, found impracticable and inconvenient on ac- 
count of the varying circumstances involved in the 
management of furnaces; whilst the latter was fre- 
quently productive of more waste than that oc- 
casioned by smoke, in consequence of the current of 
cool air above the fire being constant, and the quan- 
tity of fuel on the grate, and the temperature of the 
furnace, varying very much. 


320 USE AND ABUSE OF | 


From numerous smoke-stacks throughout the 
land can great volumes of smoke, as black as mid- 
night, be seen, at almost all times, rolling upward, 
carrying with them, to all appearance, the most 
valuable portions of the fuel. But it must be un- 
derstood that all that comes out of the chimney is 
not smoke by any means. Bituminous coal contains 
from five to six per cent. of hydrogen, which unites 
.with the oxygen necessary to combustion, and con- 
stitutes water. A ton of bituminous coal will make 
nearly one-third of a ton of water in the form of 
steam. That this steam is black, does not neces- 
sarily indicate the presence of much carbon, as a 
grain of soot, if distributed evenly in fine particles 
through a cubic foot of steam, would color it blacker 
than the ace of spades. Now it requires no argu- 
ment to show that this steam cannot be burned. It 
may be condensed by being made to pass through 
tubes kept at a low temperature, though a draught 
could only be maintained artificially under these 
conditions. 

Were it not for this mass of steam, the carbon | 
would soon fall as a cloud of black dust; but, being 
intimately and atomically mixed with the large 
volume of steam from the furnace, it is carried along 
by the atmosphere, only differing in color, like the 
cloud of steam we see issuing from the chimney of a 
locomotive when in action. With furnaces properly 
constructed, in which a thorough mixture of the 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 321 


heated gases with air may be effected, as in the 
Bunsen burner, smoke might be partially consumed ; 
but the conditions under which this successful mix- 
ture of the air and gases may be effected are rarely 
ever found in the furnace of a steam-boiler, as the 
temperature is continually varying, while the quan- 
tity of air that passes into the furnace is constant. 
The volume of smoke may be diminished in ordinary 
furnaces by supplying the fuel in small quantities 
to one side of the furnace at a time, or by placing 
the fuel inside of the furnace door, then, when the 
smoke is consumed, move the fuel back and replace 
it with a fresh supply. This necessitates the con- 
tinual opeping and closing of the furnace door, 
which admits the cold air in such quantities as to 
lower the temperature in the furnace and defeat the 
object intended to be accomplished. As an object 
of comfort and convenience, the successful consump- 
tion of smoke is very much to be desired, but when 
once formed, smoke cannot be burned by any known 
process or device. 


CONTRIVANCES FOR INCREASING DRAUGHT 
AND ECONOMIZING FUEL IN BOILER FUR- 
NACKES. 


Where space is of no object, a large boiler, large 
grate, and high stack afford the best advantages for 
the combustion of the fuel employed for the gene- 
ration of steam; but whenever, on the contrary, 

Vv 


322 USE AND ABUSE OF 


space and weight have to be economized, as in the 
case of locomotive and marine boilers, some means 
of increasing the draught and intensifying combus- 
tion becomes indispensable. For years, the question 
whether this object can be effected by means of water 
or steam has agitated the practical and scientific 
men of the country, many engineers and others 
uffirming that water does increase the heat of a fire, 
while almost all men of thorough scientific training 
hold that such an idea contradicts well known and 
recognized laws. 

The idea of a jet or jets of steam above or below 
the grate is very old, and descriptions of such ap- 
pliances are to be found in various publications on 
the burning of smoke; but the statements on this 
subject are very contradictory, and the benefits to be 
derived from the use of the steam-jet are as unde- 
cided at the! present day as in the days of Watt. 
The principal benefit claimed for the steam-jet is, that 
for every ton of oxygen required for the combustion 
of the fuel, four tons of useless nitrogen have to be 
heated from the ordinary temperature of the air to - 
that at which the gases escape into the chimney; 
whereas, by the use of the steam-jet, we increase the 
quantity of oxygen, and are enabled tintensify the 
combustion by diminishing the quantity of air ad- 
mitted, thus utilizing the heat that would otherwise 
be lost in raising the temperature of the useless nitro- 
gen to that of the escaping gases; or, in other words, 


THE STEAM-BOILER. S20 


we will suppose that the incandescent coal derives a 
portion of the oxygen required for its combustion 
from the water, it is obvious that the amount of air 
that is required will be lessened in due proportion. 

A great number of experiments, both in this coun- 
try and Europe, have shown that there is nothing, in 
an economical point of view, to be gained by the use 
of either steam, or water, either in the increase of the 
draught of ordinary furnaces or in intensifying com- 
bustion,as,while the draught may besensibly increased, 
the consumption of fuel is not materially lessened, 
proof of which may be found in the fact that wherever 
such means are tried, they are sodn allowed to fall 
into disuse, if not entirely abandoned. For factory 
purposes, or where it becomes necessary to Consume 
a large quantity of fuel on a small area of grate, the 
fan-blower is undoubtedly the most practical, efficient, 
and convenient, as it not only intensifies the com-. 
bustion, but greatly increases the quantity of avail- 
able heat. The expense incurred in its employment 
is confined simply to the cost of the fan itself. 


824 USE AND ABUSE OF 


TABLE 


SHOWING THE ACTUAL EXTENSION OF WROUGHT-IRON AT 
VARIOUS TEMPERATURES, 


Deg. 
of Fah. Length. 
Cr po aduo ating s i: 
25 a lige eae 1.0011356 
MOS neseedas 1.0025757 ) Surface becomes straw colored, deep 
Pat nahads tee 1.0043253 yellow, crimson, violet, purple, 
"1 Ade 1.0063894 deep blue, bright blue. 
OSE iesases yitped Surface becomes dull, and then 
te ES ae 1.0114811 bright red. : 
dee Se eonerce se Bright red, yellow, welding heat, 
ye ile 10512815) White heat. 


DOLD ccesecses Cohesion destroyed. Fusion perfect. 


Linear Expansion of Wrought-iron.—The linear 
expansion which a bar of wrought-iron undergoes, 
according to Daniell’s pyrometer, when heated from 
the freezing- to the boiling-point, or from 32° to 212° 
Fah., is about gd, of its length; at higher tempera- 
tures, the elongation becomes more rapid. Thus, it 
will be seen how sensible a change takes place when 
‘iron undergoes a variation of temperature. A bar 
of iron, 10 feet long, subject to an ordinary change 
of temperature of from 32° to 180° Fah., will elon- 
gate more than } of an inch, or sufficient to cause 
fracture in stone work, strip the thread of a screw, 
or endanger a bridge, floor, roof, or truss, or even 
push out a wall if brought in contact with it. 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 825 


The expansion of volume and surface of wrought- 
iron is calculated by taking the linear expansion as 
unity ; then, following the geometrical law, the super- 
ficial expansion is twice the linear, and the cubical 
expansion is three times the linear. 

Wrought-iron will bear on a square inch, without 
permanent alteration, 17,800 pounds, and an exten- 
sion in length of 54/55. Cohesive force is diminished 
z000 by an increase of 1 degree of heat. 

Compared with cast-iron, its strength is 1.12 
times, its extensibility 0.86 times, and its stiffness 1.3 
times. : 

Cast-iron expands 73555 of its length for 1 de- 
gree of heat; the greatest change in the shade, in 
this climate, is ;;4, of its length; exposed to the 
sun’s rays, za\p0- 

Cast-iron shrinks, in cooling, from ,'; to gy of its 
length. 

Cast-iron is crushed by a force of 93,000 pounds — 
upon a square inch, and will bear, without permanent 
alteration, 15,300 pounds upon a square inch. 

To find the surface dilatation of any particular 
article, double its linear dilatation; and to find the 
dilatation in volume, tripleit. To find the elongation 
in linear inches, per linear foot, of any particular 
article, multiply its respective linear dilatation, as 
given in the table, by 12. 

28 


326 


USE AND ABUSE OF 


TAB: 


SHOWING THE LINEAR DILATATION OF SOLIDS BY HEAT, 


Length which a Bar Heated to 212° has greater than when at the 
Temperature of 32°. 


SIGSS, Caster. st caunrenies ries heepe eevee temas 0018671 
COOPPOR sean s de> senkate’ dareucpeeimeaem tee ayne weaned 0017674 
(ROLE Pool iees hie Babe tts sivemin en Ue neaetone lanign de 0014880 
Proms Gasty ocipeeaces oie eanneirecuaras elastin 0011111 
LYOR, WLOURtedisedarened soso suerteand tegen th trores 0012575 
SUL Er sa ecee svecne a teoen 4ariae nou nph ee secvameay tre sst 0020205 
Steel egecssescvec see yeesesawabeusvevesnve chedeldcaury PE IRIE 


aes os a 


DEDUCED FROM EXPERIMENTS ON IRON PLATES FOR STEAM- 
BOILERS, BY THE FRANKLIN INSTITUTE, PHILADA. 


Iron boiler-plate was found to increase in tenacity, 
as its temperature was raised, until it reached a 
temperature of 550° above the freezing-point, at 

which point its tenacity began to diminish. 


At 32° to 80° tenacity is 56,000 Ibs., or + below its maximum. 


“ 


ifs 


“ 


“ 


if3 


570° «© 66.000 « 
720° «55 000 
1050° « © 39.000 * 
1240° «99.000 
1317° « )  # 9000 « 


the maximum. 

the same nearly as at 30°. 
nearly 4 the maximum, 
nearly + the maximum. 
nearly } the maximum. © 


Jt will be seen by the above table that if a boiler should 
become overheated, by the accumulation of scale on some 
of its parts, or an insufficiency of water, the iron would 
_ soon become reduced to less than one-half its strength. 





oN 
yf 


THE STEAM-BOILER, 327 


TABLE 
SHOWING THE RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS MADE ON DIF- 
FERENT BRANDS OF BOILER IRON AT THE STEVENS IN- 
STITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, HOBOKEN, N. J. 


Thirty-three experiments were made upon the 
iron taken from the exploded steam-boiler of the 
ferry-boat “ Westfield.” The following were the re- 


sults: Lbs. per. sq. in. 


Average breaking weight.........cscccscssessseens 41,653 
16 experiments made upon high grades of American 
boiler-plate. 
Average breaking Weight, .....e+..0sevensesesesoeess 54,123 
15 experiments made upon high grades of American 
flange-iron. 


Average breaking weight......cscses sesccsescsceess 42,144 
6 experiments made upon English Bessemer steel. 
Average breaking weight.........sssssecsesersterees 82,621 
5 experiments made upon English Lowmoor boiler- 
plate. 2 
Average breaking weight..}.........sssseeceesee vee 58,984 


6 experiments made upon samples of tank iron 
taken from different manufacturers. 


Average breaking weight No, 1......s.ssessseeees 43,831 
é “ «“ NO¢ Diccesessu eng receerees bevO De 
«“ a6 y Noi Sea eee 41,249 


2 experiments made on iron taken from the ex- 
ploded steam-boiler of the Red Jacket. 
Average breaking weight..... ...csssessersersseeees 49,000 
It will be noticed that the above experiments re- 
veal a great variation in the strength of boiler-plate 
of different grades. 


———- - 


USE AND ABUSE OF 


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THE STEAM-BOILER, . 3831 


TABLE 

SHOWING THE WEIGHT OF CAST-IRON PIPES, 1 FOOT IN 
LENGTH, FROM + INCH TO 1} INCHES THICK AND FROM 
3 INCHES TO 24 INCHES DIAMETER, 









































1393/1564 
145 |1623 
154 |1734 
165}|185} 
1763198 

1874/2114 
198}|2233 | 
209 |235} 
2221/2947 

2331|259 

24341273} 
2448/9851 
2654|298} 
277413104 


RS SEE 


- g THICKNESS IN INCHES. 
as 
8 
ad Latent, cere en el Pay | leo: Lee 
ope Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. 
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3h PTA LORY Ole (BI dl ce cist sdasodeh sascter ene 
4 BO LOR 22 bh 28a Nd Bey 4 cased te Lalvleen= baie dando cpenien 
BeeaW PIS ViF4h | She | BOR na, deeds s.stesaseentagnenen 
5 Ie | 19F 1°27. |) 8441; 4241 BOS] 759 beccicec licens 
Be) 15 | 214 |} 293) 374.) 46°|~ B49] 6391... 0 ee 
Og a 234 | 82 | 40%] 493} 59 | 683) 783] 883 
SAL San 5 251 | 344 | 43% | 534] 634] 734] 844] 95 
Bee ale cased 271 | 36% | 462 | 563! 673) 784) 89211014 
i, aap oreieee 29 |.39 | 50 60%! 72 | 833) 95411073 
a eae 30% | 412 | 53 645| 764] 883) 100%|1133 
ut Renee 33 | 444 | 564); 682] 80%] 933) 1063/120 
ee hae 344 | 464] 59 | 713] 84%] 984] 1113/1253 
1 1174|132 























$a2 USE AND ABUSE OF 


a A Be 


SHOWING THE TENSILE STRENGTH OF VARIOUS QUALITIES 


OF AMERICAN CAST-IRON. 


Breaking weight of 
a square inch bar. 


Common pig-iron, 
Good common caeulaee, 


Cast-iron, 
«cc 6c 


73 (f9 
Gun-heads, specimen from, . 
“cc ‘c 6é 
Greenwood cast-iron, ; i ; ; 
§ (after third melting,) . 
Mean of American cast-iron, ; 
Gun-metal, mean, ; ; i 
English Cast-Iron. 
Lowmoor, q ; : , é 
Clyde, No. 1, 
Clyde, No. 3, 
Calder, No. 1, 
Stirling, mean, 
Mean of English, . 
Stirling, toughened iron, 
Carron No. 2, cold-blast, 
‘ “« 2, hot-blast, 
i “3, cold-blast, 
ig “ 3, hot-blast, 
Davon, No. 3, hot-blast, 
Buffery, No. 1, cold-blast, 
3 “ 1, hot-blast, 


Cold-Talon (North Wales), No. 2, cold-blast, 


“ 2) hot-blast, 


. 15,000 
. 20,000 
, 20,834 
. 19,200 
. 27,700 
. 24,000 
. 39,500 
. 21,300 
. 45,970 
. 31,829 
. 87,282 


. 14,076 
. 16,125 
. 23,468 
. 18,735 
. 25,764 
. 19,484 
. 28,000 
. 16,683 
. 13,505 
. 18,200 
. 17,755 
. 21,907 
. 17,466 
. 18,487 
. 18,855 
. 16,676 


THE STEAM-BOILER. dau 


A BL, 


SHOWING THE TENSILE STRENGTH OF VARIOUS QUALITIES 
OF AMERICAN WROUGHT-IRON. 


Breaking weight of 
a square inch bar. 


From Salisbury, Conn., . : ; : . 66,000 


“Pittsfield, Mass., : : . 57,000 

‘“< Bellefonte, Pa., j : i : . 58,000 

‘< Maramec, Mo., : : ; : . 48,000 

es Ny Ns ‘ ; ? é . 58,000 

“ Centre County, Pa.,. ; : : . 58,400 

“« Lancaster County, Pa. . ¢ ; . 98,061 
“Carp River, Lake Superior, . ; . 89,582 

“ ~ Mountain, Mo., charcoal bloom, : . 90,000 
American hammered, 3 , ’ ; . 53,900 
Chain-iron, A ; . ; i ; . 48,000 
Rivets, : ; ‘ , : : : . 58,300 
Bolts, . : P ‘ : ; ‘ , . 52,250 
Boiler-plates, . ; : 4 ‘ . . 80,000 
Average boiler-plates, : : ‘ : . 55,000* 
“« joints, double-riveted, . ’ : . 85,000 

3 SeMec ATONE Ths. : ; : . 28,600 
Chrome steel, highest strength, . : : . 198,910 
. lowest uf ; : : . 168,760 

* average “ ‘ § 4 . 180,000 


Homogeneous metal, ae : : . 105,782 
+ «2d quality, ‘ , . 81,662 
Bessemer steel, . : : ; : ; . 148,324 
2 PR RO OR Se Ae NRT EHD RON gS Wp 

. . ° , “ : : h . 157,881 


334 USE AND ABUSE OF 


TABLE 


SHOWING THE TENSILE STRENGTH OF VARIOUS QUALITIES 
- OF ENGLISH WROUGHT-IRON. 


Breaking weight of 
a square inch bar. 


English bar-iron, ‘ : : ; ; . 56,000 
Iron, mean of English, ; , ; , . 938,900 

‘rivets, ; : ; ‘ ‘ F . 65,000 
Lowmoor iron, . ; : : “ : . 56,100 
Lowmoor iron plates, . : ‘ ; : . 07,881 
Bowling plates, . . ‘ é : : . 53,488 


Glasgow best boiler, . ; : 5 : . 56,317 
+ ship plates, . . ‘ d : . 53,870 


Yorkshire plates, hs : ; : ; . 07,724 
Staffordshire plates, . . : . ‘ . 48,821 
Derbyshire plates, ; ; ; : ; . 48,563 
Bessemer wrought-iron, ‘ ; . : . 65,253 
vi : * : : : A . 76,195 
‘ 66 66 : y ; . ; 82,110 
Russian cS " ‘ : . : . 99,500 
: i ef : ‘ : . ., 76,084 
Swedish i e ; > " ‘ . 58,084 


TO POLISH BRASS. 


Engineers will find the following receipt a very 
good one for polishing the brass work of their engines. 
Oxalic acid dissolved in rain- or cistern-water, in 
the proportion of half an ounce to a pint of water, 
if applied with a rag or piece of waste, will re- 
move the tarnish from brass and render it bright; 
the surface should then be rubbed with an oily rag 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 835 


and dried, and afterwards burnished with chalk, 
whiting, or rotten-stone. This is probably one of the 
quickest known methods for cleaning brass. A mix- 
ture of muriatic acid and alum, dissolved in water, 
imparts a golden color to brass articles that are 
steeped in it for a few seconds. 

Owing to irregularities of surface, it often hap- 
pens that considerable difficulty is encountered in 
putting a good polish on articles of brass or copper. 
If, however, they be immersed in a bath composed 
of aqua-fortis, 1 part; spirits of salt, 6 parts; and 
water, 2 parts, for a few minutes, if small, or about 
half an hour, if large, they will become covered with 
a kind of black mud, which, on removal by rinsing, 
displays a beautiful lustrous under-surface. Should 
the lustre be deemed insufficient, the immersion may 
be repeated, care always being taken to rinse 
thoroughly. All articles cleaned in this manner 
should be dried in hot, dry sawdust. 

Another receipt for cleaning brass, nickel-plated 
ware, or German silver, is to dissolve one ounce of 
carbonate of ammonia in four ounces of water, after 
which it should be mixed with 16 ounces of Paris: 
white. To apply it, moisten a sponge with water, 
dip it in the powder, rub quickly and lightly over 
the surface of the metal, after which it may be rub- 
bed over with some of the dry powder on a soft cloth 
or piece of clean waste. 


836 USE AND ABUSE OF 


CEMENT FOR MAKING STEAM-JOINTS. 


Take a quantity of pure red-lead, put it in an 
iron mortar, on a block or thick plate of iron. Put 
in a quantity of white-lead ground in oil; knead 
them together until you make a thick putty; then 
pound it; the more it is pounded, the softer it will 
become. Roll in red-lead and pound again; repeat 
the operation, adding red-lead, and pounding until 
the mass becomes a good stiff putty. In applying it 
to the flange or joint, it is well to put a thin grummet 
around the orifice of the pipe, to prevent the cement 
being forced inward to the pipe when the bolts are 
screwed up. When the flanges are not faced, make 
the above mass rather soft, and add cast-iron borings 
run through a fine sieve, when it will be found to 
resist either fire or water. 

Another Cement. — Powdered litharge, 2 parts; 
very fine sand, 2 parts; slacked quick-lime, 1 part. 
Mix all together. So use; mix the proper quantity 
with boiled linseed-oil, and apply quickly. It gets 
hard very soon. 

Another Cement.— White-lead ground in oil, 10 
parts; black oxide of manganese, 3 parts; litharge, 
1 part. Reduce to the proper consistency with boiled 
linseed-oil, and apply. 

Another Cement. — Red-lead ground in oil, 6 parts; 
white-lead, 3 parts; oxide of manganese, 2 parts; 


THE STEAM-BOILER. oot 


silicate of soda, 1 part; litharge, + part; all mixed 
and used as putty. 

Another Cement.— Take 10 pounds of ground 
litharge, 4 pounds of ground Paris white, + pound 
of yellow ochre, and 3 ounce of hemp; cut into 
lengths of 4 inch; mix all together with boiled lin- 
seed-oil, to the consistency of a stiff putty. This 
cement resists fire, and will set in water. 

Cement for Rust-Joints. — Cast-iron borings or turn- 
ings, 19 pounds; pulverized sal-ammoniac, 1 pound; 
flour of sulphur, 2 pound. Should be thoroughly 
mixed and passed through a tolerably fine sieve. 
Sufficient’ water should be added to wet the mixture 
through. It should be prepared some hours before 
being used. A small quantity of sludge from the 
trough of a grinding-stone will improve its quality. 

Rust-joints, composed of sal-ammoniac, iron bor- 
ings, flour of sulphur, and water, were formerly em- 
ployed for all the permanent joints around engines ; — 
but they are fast going out of use and being replaced 
by faced joints. 

Red-lead joints were also very generally used, but 
they are now obsolete, and justly so, not only for 
their dirty appearance, but also for the difficulty ex- 
perienced in starting them, as it required, in most 
cases, the use of sledges and chisels, which incurred 
the danger of breaking the flanges. 

Ail movable joints of the best description of land 
and marine engines are now faced on a lathe or 

29 WwW 


4 


Soa USE AND ABUSE OF 


planer, and then rendered perfectly steam-, air-, and 
water-tight by filing and scraping, so that all that is 
necessary, when put together, is to oil their surfaces. 

For smooth surfaces that can be conveniently 
calked, sheet copper, annealed by heating it to a 
cherry red, and then plunging it in cold water, makes 
a permanent joint. 

Lead wire makes a very cheap, clean, and per- 
manent joint. Copper wire also makes a very good 
joint; but, when convenient, it is always best to 
plane or turn a groove in one of the surfaces to be 
brought in contact. 

For uniform surfaces, gauze wire-cloth, coated on 
either side with white- or red-lead paint, makes a 
very durable joint, particularly where it is exposed 
to high temperatures. 

For pumps of stand-pipes in the holds of vessels, 
canvas well saturated on both sides with white- or 
red-lead makes a very durable joint. Pasteboard 
painted on both sides with white- or red-lead paint 
is frequently used with good results. 


STEAM- AND FIRE-REGULATORS. 


The numerous devices which have been employed 
by engineers for maintaining a uniform pressure of 
steam in boilers, shows the importance of a con- 
trivance for this purpose. As a consequence, many 
steam- and fire-regulators have been introduced to 





; 
i 
2 
; 
: 
| 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 339 





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AUTOMATIC STEAM-DAMPER, 














3840 USE AND ABUSE OF THE STEAM-BOILER, 


the public; but most of them, from complexity or 
want of good workmanship, have failed to give satis- 
faction, and in many instances have proved to be 
of more injury than advantage. 

_ The cut on page 839 shows an improved self-ad- 
justing steam- and fire-regulator, simple and durable 
in its construction, and not liable to derangement or 
loss of sensitiveness from time or use ; having perfect 
control of the damper, it will, when once set to any 
required pressure, maintain that pressure in the boiler 
so long as the required quantity of fuel is supplied. 

These machines are in successful operation 
throughout the country ; they maintain an even head 
of steam, with economy in the consumption of fuel, 
safety to the boilers, and general saving in wear and 
tear. 

The following advantages are secured by these 
Regulators: Uniformity of pressure in the boiler. 
Economy of fuel averaging ten per cent. Freedom 
from explosions induced by excessive pressure. For 
these appliances, or any information concerning them, 
address 

S. ROPER, 
447 NortH Broap STREET, PHILA. 


INDEX. 


Adaptability of the steam-boil- 


er, 16. 


Adjuncts of the steam-boiler, 27. 
Allen boiler, the, 235. 

Arched boiler-heads, 51. 
Arrangement and diameter of 


tubes, 156. 


Babcock and Wilcox’s sectional 


steam-boiler, 174. 


Blisters, 266. 
Boiler, double-deck, 31. 


drop-flue, 32. 

explosions, experimental, 223. 

flue, 29. 

flues, 189. 

furnaces, contrivances for in- 
creasing draught and econ- 
omizing fuel in, 321. 

Harrison, 138. 


Boiler-heads, 50. 


arched, 51. 
flat, 51. 


Boiler iron when broken, charac- 


teristics of, 267. 
locomotive, 33. 
making, 264. 
materials, 264. 
materials, thickness of, 60. 


plates, practical limits to the 


thickness of, 271. 
Roger’s and Black, 129. 


29 * 


Boiler seams, punched and 


drilled holes for, 281. 
stays, 299. 
the Allen, 235. 
the Galloway, 287. 
the Phleger, 159. 
the Root, 226. 
the Shapley, 154. 
tubes, 155. 
tubular, 30. 
vertical marine, 46. 


Boilers and boiler materials, 


definitions as applied to, 
277. 

expansion and contraction of, 
80. 

fire-box, 34. : 

length of, 60. 

marine, 41. 

patent, 287. 

size of, 37. 

tubulous, 35. 


Calking, 303. 
Care and management of steam- 


boilers, 237. 


Cement for making steam-joints, 


336. 
for rust-joints, 337. 


Characteristics of boiler iron 


when broken, 267. 


| Chimneys, 315. 


341 


342 


Clapp and Jones’ vertical circu- 
lating tubular boiler, 69. 

Cohesion, 277. 

Collapsing pressure of wrought- 
iron boiler flues 4% inch 
thick, 149. 

pressure of wrought-iron boil- 
er-flues 7’s inch thick, 150. 

pressure of wrought-iron boil- 
er-flues 3g inch thick, 151. 

pressure of wrought-iron boil- 
er-fiues is inch thick, 152. 

Comparative strength of single- 
and double-riveted seams, 
291; 

Concussive ebullition, 218. 

Connections and attachments, 
steam-boiler, 165. 

Contrivances for increasing 
draught and economizing 
fuel in boiler furnaces, 321. 

Corrosion of marine boilers, 77. 

of steam-boilers, internal and 
external, 73. 

Counter-sunk rivets, 295. 

Crushing strength, 278. 

Curvilinear seams, 277. 

Cylinder boiler, plain, 28. 


Dampers, 258. 
Defects in the construction of 
steam-boilers, 230. 
Definitions as applied to boilers 
and boiler materials, 277. 
Design of steam-boilers, 25. 
Detrusive strength, 278. 
Diameter and arrangement of 
tubes, 156. 
and length of steam-boilers, 
ete., £9. 
Disadvantage inherent in sec- 
tional steam-boilers, 41. 





INDEX. 


Double-deck boiler, 31. 
Drop-flue boiler, 82. 
Durability of steam-boilers, 26. 


Ebullition, concussive, 213. 
Economy of steam-boilers, 26. 
Effect of punching on steel- 
plates, 275. ‘ 
Effects of different kinds of fuel 
on steam-boilers, 263. 
Elasticity, 278. 
limit of, 278. 
Evaporation in steam-boilers,61. 
Evaporative efficiency of steam- 
boilers, 63. 
efficiency of steam-boilers, 
methods of testing the, 70. 
efficiency of tubes. 158. 
Expansion and contraction of 
boilers, 80. 
Experimental 
sions, 223. 
Explanation of tables, 118. 
of tables of collapsing press- 
ures, 148. 
Exploded boiler of locomotive 
“Charles Willard,” 222. 
boiler of the ferry-boat ‘‘ West- 
field,” 208. 
Explosions, steam-boiler, 209. 
Explosive gases, 212. 


boiler explo- 


Fatigue of metals, 279. 

Feed-water heaters, 309. 

Fire-box boilers, 34. 

Flat boiler-heads, 50. 

Flue boiler, 29. 

Foaming in marine boilers, 191. 
in steam-boilers, 189. 

Forms of steam-boilers, 27. 

Fuel on. steam-boilers, effects of 

different kinds of, 263. 





INDEX. 


Galloway boiler, the, 287. 
Gases, explosive, 212. 
Gauge-cocks, 167. 
Glass water-gauge, 173. 
Grate-bar, 314. 
surface to heating surface, 
proportion of, 73. 


Hiand-and machine-riveting, 293. 
Harrison boiler, 138. 
Heaters, feed-water, 309. 
Heating surface, etc. ,table show- 
ing number of square feet 
of, 47. 
surface of steam-boilers, 92. 
Horse-power of steam-boilers, 92. 
Hydraulic test, 106. 


Improvements in steam-boilers, 
194. 
Incrustation in steam-boilers, 
194. 
Inspection, steam-boiler, 260. 
Integrity of steam-boilers,causes 
which affect the, 19. 
Internal and external corrosion 
of steam-boilers, 73. 
grooving in steam-boilers, 78. 
radius, 278. 
Iron pboiler-plate, strength of, 
275. 
boilers, table of safe internal 
pressures for, 123. 


Lamination, 266. 

Latta steel coil boiler, 89. 

Length of boilers, 60. 

Lift of safety-valves, 183. 

Limit of elasticity, 278. 

Linear expansion of wrought- 
iron, 324. 

Location of steam-boilers, 135. 


343 


Locomotive boiler, 33. 
Longitudinal seams, 278. 


Marine boiler, vertical, 46. 
boilers, 41. 
boilers, corrosion of, 77. 
boilers, foaming tn, 191. 
tubular boiler, 42, 
Materials, boiler, 264. 
Metals, fatigue, 279. 
Methods of testing the evapora- 
tive efficiency of steam-boil- 
ers, 70. 
Moorhouse safety sectional boil- 
er, 98. 
Mud-drum, 56. 


Negtect of steam-boilers, 110. 


Over-heating, 216. 
Over=-pressure, 215. 


Patent boilers, 287. 

Petroleum, 206. 

Phleger boiler, 159. 

Pierce’s rotary tubular boiler, 
133. 

Plain cylinder boiler, 28. 

Practical limits to the thickness 
of boiler-plates, 271. 

Prevention and removal of scale 
in steam-boilers, 197. 

Priming in steam-boilers, 192. 

Proportion of grate surface to 
heating surface, 73. 

Pulsation in steam-boilers, 131. 

Punched and drilled holes for 
boiler-seams, 281. 

Punching on steel-plates, effect 
of, 275. 


Radius, internal, 278. 


344 


INDEX. 


Receipt for preventing formation | Fle for finding the safe external 


of scale, 204. 
Red-lead joints, 328. 


Regulator, steam- and fire, 340. 


Repairing steam-boilers, 107. 
Resilience, 279. 


Riveted seams, strength of, 290. 


Rivets, 296. 

counter-sunk, 295, 
Roger’s and Black boiler, 129. 
Koot boiler, the, 226. 


pressure on boiler-flues, 142. 

for finding the safe working- 
pressure of steel and iron 
boilers, 115. 

for finding the weight neces- 
sary to put on a safety-valve 
lever, when the area of 
valve, pressure, etc., are 
known, 184. 

for finding the heating sur- 


Kotary tubular boiler, Pierce's, 


133. 


Kule for cylinder boilers, 88, 262. 


for finding centre of gravity 
of taper levers for safety- 
valves, 186. 

for finding the aggregate 
strain caused by the press- 
ure of steam on the shells 
of boilers, 118. 

for finding the collapsing 
pressure of boiler-flues, 148. 

for finding the heating surface 
of vertical tubular boilers, 
88. 

for finding the pressure at 

‘ which a safety-valve is 
weighted when length of 
lever, weight of ball, etc., 
are known, 186. 

for finding the pressure per 
square inch of sectional 


area on the crown-sheets of © 


steam-boilers, 117. 

for finding the pressure per 
square inch when the area 
of valve, weight of ball, etc., 
are known, 185. 

for finding the required area 
of chimney for any boiler, 
317. 





face of steam-boilers, 87. 

for finding the quantity of 
water which boilers and 
other cylindrical vessels are 
capable of containing, 262. 

for flue-boilers, 88, 262. 

for locomotive or fire-box 
boilers, 87. 

for tubular boilers, 88. 

to find the required height of 
a column of water to supply 
a steam-boiler against any 
given pressure of steam, 263. 

to find the requisite quantity 
of water for a steam-boiler, 
263. 

Rust-joints, 337. 
cement for, 337. 


Safe load, or safe working-press- 
ure, 279. 
Safety of steam-boilers, 26. 
sectional boiler, Moorhouse, 
98. 
Safety-valves, 176. 
lift of, 183. 
Safe working-pressure of steam- 
boilers, 115. 
working-pressure of steel and 
iron boilers, rule for finding 
the, 115. 





INDEX. 


345 


Safe working-pressure or safe | Steam-boilers, durability of, 26. 


load, 279. 


Seams, comparative strength of 
single- and double-riveted, 


291. 
curvilinear, 277. 
longitudinal, 278. 


Sectional boiler, Wiegand, 111. 


steam-boilers, 38. 
steam-boilers, 
inherent in, 41. 
Selection of steam-boilers, 129. 
Setting steam-boilers, 100, 
Shapley boiler, 154. 


Silsby’s vertical tubular boiler, 


80. 
Size of boilers, 37. 
Smoke, 319. 
Sound test, 106. 
Spheroidal theory, 213. 
Stay-bolts, 301. 


Stayed and flat boiler surfaces, 


strength of, 297. 
Steam and fire regulator, 340. 


Steam-boiler, adjuncts of the. 16. 
Babeock and Wilcox’s sec- 


tional, 174. 


connections and attachments, 


165. 
explosions, 209, 


explosions, vagaries of experts 


in regard to, 227, 
inspection, 260. 
Steam-boilers, 17. 

adaptability of, 27. 


care and management of, 237. 
causes which affect the integ- 


rity of, 19. 


defects in the construction of, 


230, 
design of, 25. 


disadvantage 


econoniy of, 26, 

effects of different kinds of 
fuel on, 268. 

evaporative efficiency of, 70, 
63. 

foaming in, 189. 

forms of, 27. 

heating surface of, 838. 

horse-power of, 92. 

improvements in, 2338. 

incrustation, 194. 

internal and external corro- 
sion of, 73. 

internal grooving in, 78. 

location of, 135. 

methods of testing the evapo- 
rative efficiency of, 70. 

neglect of, 110. 

prevention and removal of 
scale in, 197. 

priming in, 192. 

pulsation in, 131. 

repairing, 107. 

rules for finding the heating 
surface of, 87. 

safety of, 26. 

safe working-pressures of, 115. 

sectional, 38. 

selection of, 129. ® 

setting, 100. 

strength of, 26. 

testing, 103. 

water-space and steam-room 
in, 58. 


N 


Steam-damper, 339. 


domes, 53. 
gauges, 170. 


joints, cement for making, 336, 


room and water-space in boil- 
ers, 58. 


diameter and length of, 59. Steel, 272. 


346 INDEX. 


Steel boilers, table of safe inter- 
nal pressures for, 119. 
Steel-plates, effect of punching 

on, 275. 
Strength, 278, 
crushing, 278. 
detrusive, 278, 
of iron boiler-plates, 275. 
of riveted seams, 290. 
of stayed and flat boiler sur- 
faces, 297. 
of steam-boilers, 26. 
tensile, 278, 
torsional, 278. 
transverse, 278, 
working, 279. 
Stress, 279, 


Table deduced from experiments 
on iron plates for steam- 
boilers, by the Franklin In- 
stitute, Philadelphia, 326. 

of comparison between ex- 
perimental results and theo- 
retical formule, 182. 

of safe internal pressures for 
iron boilers, 1238. 

of safe internal pressures for 
steel boilers, 119. 

of safe Working external pres- 
sures on flues 10 feet long, 
144. 

of safe working external pres- 
sures on flues 20 feet long, 
146. 

of squares of thickness of iron, 
and constant numbers to be 
used in finding the safe ex- 
ternal pressure for boiler- 
flues, 143. 

of superficial areas of exter- 
nal surfaces of tubes of 


various lengths, diameters’ 
in square feet, 160. 


Table of superficial areas of tubes 


of different lengths and 
diameters from 2% inches 
to 3 inches and from 8 feet 
to 20 feet, 165. 

showing diameter and pitch 
of rivets for different thick- 
nesses of plate, 297. 

showing heights of chimneys 
for producing certain rates 
of combustion per square 
foot of area of section of the 
chimney, 318. 

showing the actual extension 
of wrought-iron at various 
temperatures, 324, 

showing the linear dilatations 
of solids by heat, 326. 

showing the number ofsquare 
feet of heating-surface, 47. 

showing the proper diameter 
and height of chimney ior 
any kind of fuel, 317. 

showing the results of experi- 
ments made on different 
brands of boiler-iron at the 
Stevens Institute of Tech- 
nology. Hoboken, N. J., 327. 

showing the rise of safety- 
valves, in parts of an inch, 
at different pressures, 181. 

showing the strength of weld- 
ed boiler-plates, 286. 

showing the tensile strength 
of various qualities of 
American and English cast- 
iron, 382, 

showing the tensile strength 
of various qualities of 
American wrought-iron, 333, 


INDEX. 


Table showing the _ tensile 
strength of various quali- 
ties of English wrought- 
iron, 384. 

showing the units of heat re- 
quired to convert 1 pound 
of water, at the temperature 
of 32° Fah., into steam at 
different pressures, 311. 

showing the weight of boiler- 
plates 1 foot square and 
from zsth to an inch thick, 
830. 

showing the weight of cast- 
iron balls from 3 to 13 inches 
in diameter, 328. 

showing the weight of cast- 
iron, pipes, 1 foot in length, 
from 4 inch to 114 inches 
thick, and from 38 to 24 
inches diameter, 331. 

showing the weight of cast- 
iron plates per superficial 
foot as per thickness, 328, 

showing the weight of round- 
iron from 1% an inch to 6 
inches diameter, 1 foot 
long, 329. 

showing the weight of square 
bar-iron from ¥4 an inch to 
6 inches square, 1 foot long, 
330. 

Tensile strength, 278, 
Lesting-machines, 308, 


347 


Testing steam-boilers, 103. 
Theory, spheroidal, 218. 
Thickness of boiler materiats, 60, 
To polish brass, 834. 
Torsional strength, 278. 
Transverse strength, 278. 
Tubes, boiler, 155. 
diameter and arrangements 
of, 156. 
evaporative efficiency of, 158. 
Tubular boiler, marine, 42. 
boilers, 30. 
Tubulous boiler, Wittingham’s, 
188. 
boilers, 85, 


Vagaries of experts in regard to 
steam-boiler explosions, 227. 
Vertical circulating tubular 
boiler, Clapp and Jones’, 69. 
marine boiler, 46. 
tubular boiler, Silsby’s, 80. 


Water-gauges, glass, 178, 

Water-space and steam-room in 
steain-boilers, 58. 

Wiegand sectional boiler, 111. 

Wittingham’s tubulous boiler, 
188, 

Working strength, 279. 

Wrought-iron, linear expansion 
of, 324. 


Zine as an anti-crustator, 207. 





eens mpl cane 


ROPE R’S 


PRACTICAL 


HAND-BOOKS 


FOR 


ENGINEERS. 








Of all the efforts of human ingenuity known, perhaps 
none has monopolized so large a share of inventive genius | 
as the steam-engine. No other object in the entire range 
of human devices has so irresistibly arrogated to itself the 
devotion of scientific men as the production of an artificial 
movement from the vapor of boiling water. 





ROPER’S PRICE. 
Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines. $3.50 


| een aan een 


ROPER’S 
Hand-Book of the Locomotive. 2.50 


——_#e— — 


. ROPER’S 
and-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines. 3.50 


+See 


ROPER’S 
Catechism of High-Pressure or Non=-Condensing 
Steam-Engines. 2.60. 
ROPER’S ' 
Engineer’s Handy-Book. 3.50 
ROPER’S 


Instructions and Suggestions for Engineers and _ , 
Firemen. 2.00 








——~9e—— 


ROPER’S 
Care and Management of the Steam-Boiler. 2.00 


OK 


, ROPER’S 
Simple Process for Estimating the Horse-Power 
of Steam-Engines. .50 


ROPER’S | ; 
Questions and Answers for Engineers. 3.00 


ROPER’S 
Use and Abuse of the Steam-Boiler. 2.00 


DO 


-ROPER’S 
Young Engineer’s Own Book. 3.00 








ee wee aes eee 


INTRODUCTION. 


HE object of the writer in preparing these works haa 
been to present to the practical engineer a set of 
books to which he can refer with confidence for 

information regarding every branch of his profession. 
Up to the date of the publication of these books, it was 
impossible to find a plain and practical treatise on the 
steam-engine, This arose, perhaps, from the fact that 
men who had attained proficiency in steam-engineer- 
ing had no taste for devoting their limited leisure time 
to writing, and that those whose circumstances enabled 
them to do so, were precluded from a want of that 
practical knowledge which is only obtained by years 
of hard work and close observation. Many of the 
books heretofore written on the steam-engine are full 
of formule for calculating questions that may arise in 
the engine-room; but, as they are generally expressed 
in algebraical form, they are of little service to the 
majority of engineers; for, however useful such for- 
mule may be to the scientific, they can be of no prac- 
tical value to men who do not fully understand them. 
It is also no less a fact, that nearly all writers on the 
steam-engine deal more with the past than the present. 
This is to be regretted, for, however interesting the by- 
gone records of steam-engineering may be as a history, 
they cannot instruct the engineer of the present day 
in the principles and practice of his profession. 

An experience of over thirty years, with all kinds of 

3 


| 


INTRODUCTION, 


engines and boilers, enables the writer to fully under- 
stand the kind of information most needed by men 
having charge of steam-engines of every description, 
and what they could comprehend and employ. With 
this object in view, he has carefully investigated all 
the details of stationary, locomotive, fire, and marine 
engines, taking up each subject singly, and excluding 
therefrom everything not directly connected with 
steam-engineering. Particular attention has been 
given to the latest improvements in all these classes 
of engines, and their proportioning according to the 
best modern practice, which will be of immense value 
to engineers, as nothing of the kind has heretofore 
been published. They also contain ample instruc- 
tions for setting up, lining, reversing, and setting the 
valves of all classes of engines—subjects that have 
not received that attention from other writers on the 
steam-engine which their importance so justly merits. 
A certain portion of each book is devoted to an exam- 
ination and discussion of the principles of Hydro- and 
Thermo-Dynamics, which include Air, Water, Heat, 
Combustion, Steam, Liquefaction, Dilatation of Gases, 
Molecular and Atomic Forces, Dynamic Equivalents, 
subjects with which the practical engineer should be 
fully conversant; as to ignore the principles of any 
subject is similar to building a structure without 
knowing the strength of the foundation; for it is only 
by a minute and careful analysis of the physical 
phenomena which convert heat into a motor force 
that the steam-engine has been brought to its present 


perfection. 
Ss. R. 


HAND-BOOK 


OF 


LAND AND MARINE ENGINES; 


INCLUDING 


THE MODELLING, CONSTRUCTION, RUNNING, AND 
MANAGEMENT OF LAND AND MARINE 
ENGINES AND BOILERS. 


Fully Hllustrated, 


BY 
STEPHEN ROPER, ENGINEER, 


Author of 
’ Roper’s Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines,” “ ‘Roper’s. Catechism 
of High-Pressure or Non- Condensing Steam-Engines,” ‘Roper’s 
Hand-Book of the Locomotive,” ‘‘Roper’s Hand-Book of 
Modern Steam Fire- Engines, ” “Roper’s Handy-Book 


for Engineers,’ ‘‘Roper’s Young Engineer’s 
Own Book,” “ Roper's Use and Abuse of 
the Steam-Boiler,” “Questions for 


Engineers,” etc. 





MARINE BEAM-ENGINE, 


PHILADELPHIA: 


EDWARD MEEKS. 
Lay ) 5 


Roper’s Hand-book of Land and 
Marine Kngines. 


Opinions of the Press. 


Ircn Age, New York, 


HE author of this hand-book says, in his preface, that 

his object in preparing it, “has been to present to the 
practical inquirer a book to which he can refer with confi- 
dence for information in regard to every branch of his pro- 
fession.” 

Rules and directions expressed in algebraic formule are 
of little service to the majority of engineers, because they 
are not fully understood. The author, keeping this in mind, 
has avoided most of the points which render many of our 
hand-books of limited value to the practical man. He has 
had a long and extensive practical experience among the men 
for whom he writes, and understanding their wants, has pro- 
duced a book which seems admirably adapted to those who 
have anything to do, in a practical way, with steam ma- 
chinery. We have given the work a careful examination, 
and consider it one of the most satisfactory works of the kind 
we have ever seen. Mr. Roper thoroughly understands his 
subject, being entirely practical, and, at the same time, hay- 
ing a correct understanding of scientific principles. His 
chapters on the theory of steam engineering are so simple 
and practical that there is no mechanic in the country, how- 
ever ignorant he may be of higher mathematics, who cannot 
learn all they are intended to teach. His practical directions 
for the management of engines are just such as we should 
expect from an experienced engineer who had spent all his 

6 


OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. 


life in an engine-room, but who had learned the theory as 
well as the practice of his trade. They are plain and to the 
point, and the reader may accept them with an entire confi- 
dence. His descriptions of engines, pumps, and the appli- 
ances connected with engines, are exceedingly satisfactory, 
as are also his rules, which seem to be the best and simplest 
which could be formulated. The book has an abundance of 
tabular information, which seems to include all the tables 
that could be of any use. The engravings are good, and are 
just what is wanted to explain the text.. In a word, the 
amount and kind of information contained in this work seems 
to be all that could be desired. The owner of a steam-engine 
cannot well do without it, and no one who runs an engine 
should be ignorant of any part of its contents. 


CONTENTS, 


INTRODUCTION. 
THE STEAM-ENGINE. 
STEAM. 

Table showing the Temperature and Weight of Steam 
at different Pressures from one Pound per Squara 
Inch to 300 Pounds, and the Quantity of Steam pro- 
duced from 1 Cubic Inch of Water, according to 
Pressure. 

EconoMy OF WORKING STEAM EXPANSIVELY. 

Table of Hyperbolic Logarithms to be used in Con- 
nection with the above Rule. 

Table showing the average Pressure of Steam upon the 
Piston throughout the Stroke, when Cut-off in the 
Cylinder from } to ;4, commencing with 25 Pounds 
and advancing in 5 Pounds up to 180 Pounds Press- 
ure. 

Table of Multipliers by which to find the mean Press- 
ure of Steam at various points of Cut-off. 

HIGH-PRESSURE OR NON-CONDENSING STEAM-ENGINES, 

PoWER OF THE STEAM-ENGINE. 
Foreign Terms and Units for Horse-power. 
Table of Factors. 

WASTE IN THE STEAM-ENGINE. 

DESIGN OF STEAM-ENGINES. 

THE BED-PLATE. 

CYLINDERS. | 

Table showing the proper Thickness for Steam-cylin- 
ders of different Diameters. 

8 


CONTENTS. 


PISTONS. 
PISTON-RINGS. 
PISTON-SPRINGS. 
STEAM-PISTONS. 
SoLip PIsToNs. 

Table of Piston Speeds for all Classes of Engines — 
Stationary, Locomotive, and Marine. 

PISTON, CONNECTING-ROD, AND CRANK CoNNECTION. 

Table showing the Position of the Piston in the Cyl- 
inder at different Crank-angles, according to the 
length of Connecting-rod. 

Table showing length of Stroke and Number of Revo- 
lutions for different Piston Speeds in Feet per Minute. 

PISTON-RODS. 
CRANK-PINS. 

Table showing the Angular Position of the Crank-pin 
corresponding with the various Points in the Stroke 
which the Piston may occupy in the Cylinder. 

STEAM-CHESTS. 
VALVE-RODS. 
GUIDES. 
ROcK-SHAFTS. 
CrOss-HEADS. 
STEAM-PORTS. 

Table showing the Proper Area of Steam-ports for 

different Piston Speeds. 
SLIDE-VALVES. 
PROPORTIONS OF SLIDE-VALVES. 
LAP ON THE SLIDE-VALVE. 
PopPpET OR CONICAL VALVES. 

Table showing the Amount of “Lap” required for 
Slide-valves of Stationary Engines when the Steam 
is to be Worked expansively. 


CONTENTS, © 


LEAD OF THE SLIDE-VALVE. 

CLEARANCE, 

COMPRESSION, 

FRICTION OF SLIDE-VALVES, 

BALANCED SLIDE-VALVES. 

FITTING SLIDE-VALVES, 

SLIDE-VALVE CONNECTIONS, 

ECCENTRICS. 

ECCENTRIC-RODS. 

CRANKS. 

CRANK-SHAFTS. 

PILLOW-BLOCKS, OR MAIN BEARINGS. 

FLY-WHEELS. 

LINK-MOTION. 

PROPORTIONS OF STEAM-ENGINES ACCORDING TO THE 
BEST MODERN PRACTICE. 

SETTING UP ENGINES, 

DEAD-CENTRE. 

How TO PUT AN ENGINE. IN LINE. 

How To REVERSE AN ENGINE. 

SETTING VALVES. 

How To sET A SLIDE-VALVE. 

SETTING OUT PISTON PACKING. 

PISTON- AND VALVE-ROD PACKING. 

AUTOMATIC CUT-OFFS. 

GOVERNORS. 

THE HuUNTOON GOVERNOR. 

THE ALLEN GOVERNOR. 

THE CATARACT. 

WRIGHT’S HIGH-PRESSURE ENGINE. 

HAWKINS AND DopGk’s HIGH-PRESSURE ENGINE. 

WATTS AND CAMPBELL’S HIGH-PRESSURE ENGINE. 

THE BUCKEYE HIGH-PRESSURE ENGINE. 


CONTENTS. 


WHEELOCK’S HIGH-PRESSURE ENGINE. 
THE CorLiss HIGH-PRESSURE ENGINE. 
HAMPSON AND WHITEHILL’S HIGH-PRESSURE ENGINE. 
THE ALLEN HIGH-PRESSURE ENGINE. 
WoopRUFF AND BEACH’S HIGH-PRESSURE ENGINE, 
NAYLOR’S VERTICAL HIGH-PRESSURE ENGINE. 
WILLIAMS’ VERTICAL THREE-CYLINDER HIGH-PRESS- 
URE ENGINE. 
RopPer’s CALORIC ENGINE. 
HASKINS’ VERTICAL HIGH-PRESSURE ENGINE. 
MAssEy’s RcTARY ENGINE. 
PORTABLE ENGINES. 
How To BALANCE VERTICAL ENGINES, 
KNOCKING IN ENGINES. 
THE INJECTOR. 
PUMPS. 
FORCE-PUMPS. 
PISTON-PUMPS. 
BoILER FEED-PUMPS. 
STEAM-PUMPS 
THE ATLAS STEAM-PUMP. 
THE DAYTON CAM-PUMP. 
DIRECTIONS FOR SETTING UP STEAM-PUMPS, 
THE PULSOMETER. 
‘JAMES WATT. 
CONDENSING OR LOW-PRESSURE STEAM-ENGINES. 
EXPLANATION, OF THE WORKING PRINCIPLES OF TH? 
CONDENSING ENGINE. 
HORSE-POWER OF CONDENSING ENGINES. 
THE VACUUM. 
MARINE STEAM ENGINES. 
CoMPOUND ENGINES. 
11 


CONTENTS. 


TDIRECT-ACTING ENGINES. 
BALANCING THE MOMENTUM OF DIRECT-ACTING EN 
GINES, 
OSCILLATING ENGINES. 
TRUNK ENGINES. 
GEARED ENGINES. 
BACK-ACTION ENGINES, 
SIDE-LEVER ENGINES. 
BEAM ENGINES. 
MARINE BEAM ENGINE. 
STARTING-GEAR FOR MARINE ENGINES. 
CONDENSERS. 
AIR-PUMPS. 
THE HYDROMETER, SALINOMETER, OR SALT-GAUGE. 
THE MANOMETER. 
THE BAROMETER. 
MARINE ENGINE REGISTER, CLOCK, AND VACUUM 
GAUGE, 
STEAM-GAUGES. 
GLASS WATER-GAUGES. 
THE STEAM-ENGINE INDICATOR. 
METHOD OF APPLYING THE INDICATOR. 
ForRM OF DIAGRAMS, 
How To KEEP THE INDICATOR IN ORDER. 
THE DYNAMOMETER, 
THE ENGINEER. 
MANAGEMENT OF LAND AND MARINE ENGINES. 
How TO PUT THE ENGINES IN A STEAMBOAT OR SHIP. 
SCREW-PROPELLERS. 
PADDLE-WHEELS. 
FLUID RESISTANCE. 
Signification of Signs used in Calculations, 
12 


a a a os 


CONTENTS, 


DECIMAL. 
Decimal Equivalents of Inches, Feet, and Yards. 
Decimal Equivalents of Pounds and Ounces. 
Useful Numbers in calculating Weights and Measures 
ete. 
Decimal Equivalents to the Fractional Parts of a Gal 
lon or an Inch, 
Units. 
THEORY OF THE STEAM-ENGINE, 
WATER, 
AIR. 
THE THERMOMETER. 
Comparative Scale of Centigrade, Fahrenheit, and 
Reaumer Thermometers. 
ELASstTic FLUIDs, 
CALORIC, 
HEAT, 
COMBUSTION, 
GASES. 
STEAM-BOILERS, 
STEAM-DOMES, 
MtUp-pRU Ms. 
SETTING Borers. 
EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION OF BoILERs. 
TESTING BOILERS, 
NEGLECT OF STEAM-BOILERS, 
CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF STEAM-BOILERS, 
HraTING SURFACE, ) 
RULES FOR FINDING THE HEATING SURFACE OF STEAM 
BOILERS. 
EVAPORATIVE EFFICIENCY OF BOILERS, 
HORSE-POWER OF BOILERS, 
; a 13 


CONTENTS. 


FIRING. 

INSTRUCTIONS FOR FIRING. 

RULES FOR FINDING THE QUANTITY OF WATER BOIL- 
ERS AND OTHER CYLINDRICAL VESSELS ARE CAPA- 
BLE OF CONTAINING. 

LONGITUDINAL AND CURVILINEAR STRAINS. 

RULES. 

EXPLANATION OF TABLES OF BOILER PRESSURES ON 
_ FOLLOWING PAGES. 

Table of safe Internal Pressures for Iron Boilers. 

Table of safe Internal Pressures for Steel Boilers. 

MARINE BOILERS. 

Proportions of Heating Surface to Cylinder and Grate 
Surface of noted Ocean, River, and Ferry-boat 
Steamers. 

SETTING MARINE BOILERS. 

BEDDING MARINE BOILERS. 

CLOTHING MARINE BOILERS, 

CARE OF MARINE BOILERS. 

REPAIRING STEAM-BOILERS, 

TUBES, 

Table of Superficial Areas of External Surfaces of 
Tubes of Various Lengths and Diameters in Square 
Feet, 

BoILER EF LUES, 

BOILER-HEADS. 

SAFETY-VALVES. 

Table showing the Rise of Safety-valves, in Parts of 
an Inch, at different Pressures, 

RULES. 

FOAMING, 

INCRUSTATION IN STEAM-BOILERS, 

14 


CONTENTS, 


INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL CORROSION OF STEAM- 

BOILERS. 

BoILER EXPLOSIONS. 
COMPARATIVE STRENGTH OF SINGLE AND DOUBLE: 

RIVETED SEAMS, 

CALKING, 

STRENGTH OF THE STAYED AND FLAT SURFACES. 

DEFINITIONS AS APPLIED TO BOILERS AND BOILER 
MATERIALS, 

FEED-WATER HEATERS, 

Table showing the Units of Heat required to Convert 
One Pound of Water, at the Temperature of 32° 
Fah., into Steam at different Pressures. 

STEAM-JACKETS. 
Loss OF PRESSURE IN CYLINDERS INDUCED BY LONG 

STEAM-PIPES. 

PRIMING IN STEAM-CYLINDERS. 
OILS AND OILING, | 

Table of Coefficients of Frictions between Plane Sur- 

aces. 
GRATE-BARS. 
CHIMNEYS. 

Table showing the proper Diameter and Height of 

Chimney for any kind of Fuel. 
SMOKE. 
MENSURATION OF THE CIRCLE, CYLINDER, SPHERE, 

ETC, 


CENTRAL AND MECHANICAL FORCES AND DEFINI- 


TIONS. 
THE CIRCLE. 
Table containing the Diameters, Circumferences, and 
Areas of Circles, and the Contents of each in Gal- 


lons, at 1 Foot in Depth. 
15 


CONTENTS. 


LOGARITHMS. 
Table of Logarithms of Numbers from 0 to 1000. 
HYPERBOLIC LOGARITHMS. | 
Table of Hyperbolic Logarithms, 
Table containing the Diameters, Circumferences, and 
Areas of Circles from ;, of an Inch to 100 Inches, 
RULES FOR FINDING THE DIAMETER AND SPEED OF 
PULLEYS. 
GEARING. 
BELTING. 
CEMENT FOR MAKING STEAM-JOINTS AND PATCHING 
STEAM-BOILERS. 5 
NON-CONDUCTORS FOR STEAM-PIPES AND STEAM-CYL- 
INDERS. 
How To MArK ENGINEERS’ OR MACHINISTS’ TOOLS. 
To PouisH BRAss, 
SOLDER. 
Table showing Weight of different Materials. 
JOINTS. 
THE INVENTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF THE STEAM- 
ENGINE. 


re 


16 


: HAND-BOOK 


} OF THE 


Oe Cy NEO TE Nar. 


INCLUDING THE 


CONSTRUCTION, RUNNING, AND MANAGEMENT 
OF LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES AND BOILERS. 


Fully illustrate, 











BY 


STEPHEN ROPER, Encrneerr, 


Author of 
“ Roper’s Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines,” “ Roper’s Catechism 
of High-Pressure or Non-Condensing Steam-Engines,” ‘“Roper’s 
Hand-Book of the Locomotive,” ‘‘ Roper’s Hand-Book of 
Modern Steam Fire-Engines,” ‘“Roper’s Handy-Book 


for Engineers,” ‘‘Roper’s Young Engineer's 
Own Book,” “Roper’s Use and Abuse of 
the Steam-Boiler,” ‘‘ Questions for 


Engineers,” etc. 


PHILADELPHIA: 


a EDWARD MEEKS. 
; , ao | . 17 


ROPER’S HAND-BOOK 
LHE LOCOMOTIVE: 


OPINIONS OF THE PRESS, 


Scientific American, New York. 


The author of this work very truly believes that in a book, 
ss ina clock, any complication of its machinery has a tendency 
to impair its usefulness and affect its reliability. Hence, in pres 
paring a book which is intended to be a guide for the practical 
locomotive engineer, he avoids “mathematical problems and 
entangling formule,” and offers a pocket volume, full of in- 
formation, theoretical as well as practical, succinctly and clearly 
condensed. There are chapters on heat, combustion, water, air, 
gases and steam; others on the construction of the locomotive 
and of its various parts, entered into with considerable details; 
instructions for the care and management of boilers and engines, 
tables of strength of materials, and useful practical hints for 
the guidance of the engineer. In brief, the volume is, as its * 
name indicates, a hand-book to which the locomotive mechanic 
can turn for information regarding almost every branch of his 
trade. It is neatly illustrated and bound in morocco, in conve 
nient pocket-book form. 


North American and United States Gazette, Phila. 
Mr. Roper asserts as a preliminary qualification for his task, 
that he has had more than thirty years’ experience with all 
18 





ROPER’S HAND-BOOK OF THE LOCOMOTIVE, 


classes of steam-engines and boilers. The object of the work ia 
to convey practical knowledge of all that appertains to the loco- 
motive engine and boiler, in a practical manner.. Stationary 
and marine engines are omitted, because other treatises furnish 
all that need be known of them. Mr. Roper seems to know 
exastly what the class for whom he writes require, and what they 
ean comprehend and employ. His opinion, as expressed in his 
work, is the highest compliment ever paid to those in question, 
and to the railways of this country, by which this skill has been 
ereated and is sustained and promoted. The mechanical and 
dynamical equivalents of heat and its molecular force are treated 
in a clear and lucid manner. Chemical equivalents, the lique- 
faction and dilatation of gases, superheated steam, tractive and 
evaporative power, combustion, mensuration, incrustation, and 
similar subjects are discussed. The strictly mechanical infor- 
mation is fully and lucidly set forth, to an extent that would 
gain a degree in any of our schools, But beyond the rudi- 
ments, and beyond their combinations and applications, there 
is the pervading idea that the American engineer aims to know 
the effect by its cause—seeks philosophical knowledge as a part 
of his employment, and not only seeks, but, as a whole, has mas- 
tered so much that he deserves a standard in pure science very 
few have supposed. No higher compliment could be paid, and 
it could be paid nowhere else. The treatise apparently omits 
nothing, expresses clearly though compactly, furnishes tables, 
and is a fine tribute to the practical ability of the country. If 
contains suitable illustrations, and is appropriately ; refaced with 
a portrait of M. W. Baldwin. 


19 


CONTENTS, 


INTRODUCTION. 

THE LOCOMOTIVE. 

LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERS. 

THEORY OF THE LOCOMOTIVE, 

W ATER, 

AIR. 

COMPARATIVE SCALE OF ENGLISH, FRENCH, AND GER- 
MAN THERMOMETERS. 

THE THERMOMETER. 

ELAstTic FLUIDS AND VAPORS. 

CALORIC. 

HEAT. 

COMBUSTION. 

GASES, 

STEAM. 

Table showing the Velocity with which Steam of Differ- 
ent Pressures will flow into the Atmosphere or into 
Steam of lower Pressure. 

Rule for finding the Superficial Feet of Steam-pipe re- 
quired to Heat any Building with Steam. 

Table showing the Temperature of Steam at Different 
Pressures from 1 pound per Square Inch to 240 
pounds, and the Quantity of Steam produced from 
a Cubic Inch of Water, according to Pressure. 

HORSE-POWER OF STEAM-ENGINES, 

Rule for finding the Horse-power of Stationary En- 

gines, 
THE POWER OF THE LOCOMOTIVE. 
20 


= 
r 


a ae ee ee eee 





CONTENTS. 


Rule for finding the Horse-power of a Locomotive. 

Rules for calculating the Tractive Power of Locomo- 
tives. 

Table of Gradients. 

Adhesive Power of Locomotives. 

Proportions of Locomotives, according to best Modern 
Practice. 

Proportions of Different Parts of Locomotives, accord- 
ing to best Modern Practice. 

Table showing the ‘Travel of Valve and the Amount 
of Lap and Lead for Different Points of Cut-off, and 
the Distance the Steam follows the Piston on the 
Forward Motion. 

RULES. 

LoOcoMOTIVE BUILDING. 

CONSTRUCTION OF LOCOMOTIVES. 
SETTING THE VALVES OF LOCOMOTIVES. 
DEAD WEIGHT IN LOCOMOTIVES. 

Table showing the number of Revolutions per minute 
made by Drivers of Locomotives of different Diam- 
eters and at different Speeds. 

STEAM-PORTS. 
BRIDGES. 
ECCENTRICS. 
Eccentric Rops. 

Formula by which to find the Positions of the Eccen- 

tric on the Shaft. 
THE SLIDE-VALVE. 
FRICTION ON THE SLIDE-VALVE. 
LAP AND LEAD OF VALVE. 
BALANCED SLIDE-VALVE. 
Table showing the Amount of Lap and Lead on the 
21 


CONTENTS, 


Valves of Locomotives in Practice, on thirty-five of 
the principal Railroads in this Country, 
THE LINK. 
ADJUSTMENT OF THE LINK. 
STEAM AND SPRING CYLINDER PACKING FOR Loco- 
MOTIVES, 
Rule for finding the size of Piston- and Valve-rod 
Packing, j 
BRASSES FOR DRIVING-AXLES OF LOCOMOTIVES. 
LATERAL MOTION. 
SPEED INDICATORS. 
LocoMOTIVE BOILERS. 
PROPORTIONS OF THE LOCOMOTIVE BOILER, FROM THE 
BEST MODERN PRACTICE. 
WAGON-TOP AND STRAIGHT BOILERS. 
THE EVAPORATIVE POWER OF LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS. 
HEATING SURFACE, STEAM ROOM, AND WATER SPACE 
IN LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS. 
HEATING SURFACE TO GRATE SURFACE IN STEAM 
BOILERS. 
Rule for finding the Heating Surface in Locomotive 
Boilers. 
Rule for finding the Heating Surface in the Tubes of 
Locomotive Boilers. 
Rule for finding the Heating Surface in Stationary 
Boilers. 
PUNCHED AND DRILLED HOLES FOR THE SEAMS OF 
LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS. 
MACHINE AND HAND RIVETING FOR LOCOMOTIVE 
BOILERS. 
COMPARATIVE STRENGTH OF SINGLE AND DOUBLE 
RIVETED BOILER SEAMS. 
22 


CONTENTS. 


FURNACES OF LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS. 
PROPORTIONS OF FIRE-BOXES, FROM THE BEST Mop- 
ERN PRACTICE. | 
STRENGTH OF STAYED SURFACES IN THE FURNACES 
.OF LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS. 
STAY-BOLTS. 
CROWN-BARS. 
TUBES. 
CoMBUSTION OF FUEL IN LOCOMOTIVE FURNACES. 
SMOKE-BOX. 
SMOKE-STACKS. 
EXHAUST-NOZZLE. 
SAFETY-VALVES. 
Tablé showing the Rise of the Safety-valves. 
STEAM-GAUGES. 
INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF 
LOcoMOTIVE BOILERS. 
FIREMEN ON LOCOMOTIVES. 
FIRING. 
THE INJECTOR. 
SIGNALS. 
Wreckina Toots. 
RULES FOR FINDING THE ELASTICITY OF STEEL 
SPRINGS. 
CENTRAL AND MECHANICAL Forces AND D£FINI- 
TIONS. 
Table containing Diameters, Circumferences, and Areas 
of Circles, etc. 
INCRUSTATION IN STEAM-RPOILERS. 
BOILER EXPLOSIONS. 
VOCABULARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS AS APPLIED TO 
THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF LOCOMOTIVES, 
23 


HAND-BOOK 


OF MODERN 


STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 


INCLUDING ‘THE 


RUNNING, CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF STEAM 
FIRE-ENGINES AND FIRE-PUMPS. 


BY 


STEPHEN ROPER, ENGINEER, 


AUTHOR OF “ ROPER’S CATECHISM OF HIGH PRESSURE OR NON-CONDENSING 
STEAM ENGINES,” “ROPER’S HAND*BOOK OF LOCOMOTIVES,” 
‘+ ROPER’S HAND-BOOK OF LAND AND MARINE 
ENGINES,” ETO, 


Second Fdition, tuith Lllustrations. 


REVISED AND CORRECTED BY H. L. STELLWAGEN, M. E, 


PHILADELPHIA : 
EDWARD MEEKS, 


1012 WALNUT STREET, 


1889, 





CONTENTS. 


THE STEAM FIRE-ENGINE. 
FIRE. 

PRECAUTIONS AGAINST FIRES. 
WHAT TO DO IN CASE OF FIRE. 
MEANS OF PREVENTING FIRES. 
DIFFERENT METHODS OF EXTINGUISHING FIRES. 
FIRE-ESCAPES. 

FIRE PROOF BUILDINGS. 

LOSSES BY FIRE. 

AHRENS’ STEAM FIRE-ENGINE. 
AIR. 

Table showing the Weight of the Atmosphere in Pounds, 
Avoirdupois, on 1 Square Inch, corresponding with 
different Heights of the Barometer, from 28 Inches to 
31 ‘Inches, varying by Tenths of an Inch. 

Table showing the Expansion of Air by Heat, and the 
Increase in Bulk in Proportion to Increase of Tempera- 
ture. 

ELASTIC FLUIDS. 

AIR-VESSELS. 

CLAPP AND JONES’ STEAM FIRE-ENGINE. 
WATER. 

Table showing the Boiling point for Fresh Water at differ- 
ent Altitudes above Sea-level. 

Table showing the Weight of Water at different Tempera- 
tures. 

Table showing the Weight of Water in Pipe of various 
Diameters 1 Foot in Length. 

Table containing the Diameters, Circumferences; and 
Areas of Circles, and the Contents of each in Gallons, at 
1 Foot in Depth. Utility of the Table. 

SILSBY ROTARY STEAM FIRE-ENGINE. 

METHOD OF WORKING THE STEAM IN THE SILSBY ROTARY 
ENGINE, 

DISCHARGE OF WATER THROUGH APERTURES, 


25 


CONTENTS. 


Table showing the Theoretical Discharge of Water by 
Round Apertures of various Diameters, and under differ- 
ent Heads of Water Pressure. 

Table showing the Actual Discharge by Short Tubes of 
various diameters, with Square Edges and under differ- 
ent Heads of Water Pressure, being ;°; of the Theoreti- 
cal Discharge. 

Table showing the Discharge of Jets with different Heads. 

Table showing the Number of Gallons of Water discharged 
through different Size Apertures, and with different 
Heads, in One Minute and in Twenty-four Hours. 

RULES. 

STEAM FIRE ENGINES. 

NAMES OF PRINCIPAL MANUFACTURERS OF STEAM FIRE- 
ENGINES IN THIS COUNTRY. 

AMOSKEAG STEAM FIRE- ENGINE. 

EARLY FORMS OF STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

FLOATING STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

THE BUTTON STEAM FIRE-ENGINE. 

TRIALS OF STEAM FIRE- ENGINES. 

INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF STEAM 
FIRE-ENGINES AND BOILERS. 

ENGINEERS. 

FIREMEN. 

USEFUL INFORMATION FOR ENGINEERS AND: FIREMEN. 

PAID AND VOLUNTEER FIRE DEPARTMENTS. 

FIRE-ALARMS. 

THE GOULD STEAM FIRE-ENGINE. 

ROUTINE OF BUSINESS IN PAID FIRE DEPARTMENTS. 

FIRE-HOSE. 

HOSE-COUPLINGS. 

DIMENSIONS OF FIRST- AND SECOND-CLASS aryl age FIRE- 
ENGINES. 

HORIZONTAL DISTANCES THROWN BY MODERN STEAM 
FIRE-ENGINES. 

PERPENDICULAR HEIGHTS THROWN BY MODERN STEAM- 
FIRE- ENGINES. 

THE LA FRANCE STEAM FIRE-ENGINE. 

HIGH-PRESSURE OR NON-CONDENSING STEAM-ENGINES-- 
FIRE, LOCOMOTIVE, AND STATIONARY. 

POWER OF THE STEAM ENGINE. 


26 


: 


CONTENTS. 


FOREIGN TERMS AND UNITS FOR HORSE-POWER. 

Table of Factors. 

THE POWER OR HORSE-POWER OF THE LOCOMOTIVE. 

RULES FOR CALCULATING THE TRACTIVE POWER OF Loco: 
MOTIVES. 

Table of Gradients. 

HOLLOWAY CHEMICAL FIRE-ENGINE. 

SELF-PROPELLING STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 

WASTE IN THE HIGH-PRESSURE OR NON-CONDENSING 
STEAM-ENGINES. 

TABLE COMPARING DuTy oF MODERN HIGH-GRADE 
ENGINES. 

DIFFERENT PARTS OF STEAM ENGINES—THE CRANK. 

Table showing the Angular Position of the Crank-pin cor- 
responding with the various Points in the Stroke which 
the Piston may occupy in the Cylinder. 

Table of Piston Speeds for all Classes of Engines—Station- 
ary, Locomotive, Fire, and Marine. 

Table showing Position of the Piston in the Cylinder at 
different Crank-angles, according to the length of Con- 
necting-rod. 

Table showing Length of Stroke and Number of Revolu- 
tions for different Piston Speeds in Feet per Minute. 

THE ECCENTRIC. 

THE SLIDE-VALVE. 
PROPORTIONS OF SLIDE VALVES. 
LAP ON THE SLIDE-VALVE. 

Table showing Amountof ‘‘ Lap’’ required for Slide-valves 
of Stationary Engines when the Steam is to be Worked 
Expansively. 

LEAD OF THE SLIDE-VALVE. 
FRICTION OF SLIDE-VALVES. 
BALANCED SLIDE-VALVES. 
COMPRESSION. 

CLEARANCE. 

AUTOMATIC CUT-OFFS. 
SETTING VALVES. 

How To SET A SLIDE-VALVE. 
SETTING OUT PISTON PACKING. 
How To REVERSE AN ENGINE. 
DEAD CENTRE. 


27 


CONTENTS, 


How TO PuT AN ENGINE IN LINE. 
PROPORTIONS OF STEAM-ENGINES ACCORDING TO THE BEST 
MoDERN PRACTICE. 
Table showing Proper Thickness for Steam Cylinders of 
different diameters. : 
THE INVENTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF THE STEAM: 
ENGINE. 
SIGNIFICATION OF SIGNS USED IN CALCULATIONS. 
DECIMALS. 
Decimal Equivalents of Inches, Feet and Yards. 
Decimal Equivalents of Pounds and Ounces. 
Useful Numbers in Calculating Weights and Measures, ete. 
Decimal Equivalents to the Fractional Parts of a Gallon 
or an Inch. 
UNITS. 
THE METRIC SYSTEM OF MEASURES AND WEIGHTS. 
Metric Measures of Length. 
Metric Measures of Surface. 
Metric Measures of Capacity. 
Metric Weights. 
PUMPS. 
STEAM-PUMPS. 
BLAKE’S SPECIAL STEAM FIRE-PUMP. 
WRIGHT’S BUCKET-PLUNGER STEAM FIRE-PUMP. 
Dimensions ofthe Bucket-plunger Steam Fire-pumps. 
PROPORTIONS OF STEAM FIRE-PUMPS. 
PROPORTIONS OF BOILER FEED-PUMPS. 
PROPORTIONS OF MARINE-PUMPS. 
PROPORTIONS OF WRECKING-PUMPS. 
PROPORTIONS OF MINING-PUMPS. 
PROPORTIONS OF AIR-PUMPS. 
PROPORTIONS OF TANK-PUMPS. 
PROPORTIONS OF BREWERS’ AND DISTILLERS' PUMPS. 
Table showing the Proportions of Steam-pumps demon-~ 
strated by Practical Experience to be the best adapted 
for the Various Purposes for which they are used. 
THE KNOWLES’ STEAM FIRE-PUMP. 
EARLE’S STEAM FIRE-PUMP. 
DIRECTIONS FOR SETTING UP STEAM-PUMPS, 
THE ATLAS STEAM FIRE PUMP. 
OuNDE’S CHALLENGE STEAM FIRE-PUMP. 


28 


CONTENTS. 


HOLLY’sS ROTARY STEAM FIRE-PUMP. 
PROPER METHOD OF LOCATING STEAM FIRE-PUMPS. 
THE INJECTOR. 
Table of Capacities of Rue’s ‘‘ Little Giant ’’ Injector. 
THE PULSOMETER. 
THE HYDRAULIC RAM. 
BOILERS OF STEAM FIRE-ENGINES. 
CAUSES OF FOAMING IN STEAM-BOILERS. 
EVAPORATION IN STEAM-BOILERS. 
INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL CORROSION OF STEAM-BOILERS. 
RULES. 
RULE FOR FINDING THE HEATING SURFACE OF STEAM 

BOILERS. 

DEFINITIONS AS APPLIED TO BOILERS AND BOILER MATE- 

RIALS. 

Table of Safe Internal Pressures for Iron Boilers. 

LONGITUDINAL AND CURVILINEAR STRAINS. 
HEAT. 
LATENT HEAT OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES. 
Table of the Radiating Power of different Bodies. 
Table showing the Effects of Heat upon different Bodies. 
CALORIC. 
COMBUSTION. 
COMPOSITION OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF ANTHRACITE COAL. 

Table showing the Total Heat of Combustion of Various 
Fuels. 

Table showing the Nature and Value of several Varieties of 
American Coal and Coke, as deduced from Experiments 
by Professor Johnson, for the United States Government. 

Table showing some of the Prominent Qualities in the 
principal American Woods. 

Table showing the Relative Properties of good Coke, Coal, 
and Wood. 

ENTIRE COAL PRODUCTIONS OF THE WORLD. 
SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION. 

Table showing the Temperature at which different Com- 

bustible Substances will Ignite. 
STEAM. 
ECONOMY OF WORKING STEAM EXPANSIVELY. 

Table of Hyperbolic Logarithms to be used in connection 
with the above Rule. 


29 


CONTENTS. 


Table of Multipliers by which to find the Mean Pressure 
of Steam at Various Points of Cut-off. 

Table showing the Average Pressure of Steam upon the 
Piston throughout the Stroke, when Cut-off in the Cyl- 
inder from 4 to 75, commencing with 25 Pounds and 
advancing in 5 Pounds up to 15 Pounds Pressure. 

Table showing the Average Pressure of Steam upon the 
Piston throughout the Stroke, when Cut-off in the Cylin- 
der from 4 to 4, commencing with 80 Pounds, and ad- 
vancing in 5 Pounds up to 130 Pounds Pressure. 

Table showing the Temperature of Steam at different 
Pressures, from 1 Pound per Square Inch to 240 Pounds, 
and the Quantity of Steam produced from a Cubic Inch 
of Water, according to the Pressure. 

EXPLANATION OF TABLE. 

Table of the Elastic Force, Temperature and Volume of 
Steam from a Temperature of 32° to 457° Fah., and 
from a Pressure of 0.2 to 900 inches of Mercury. 

Table showing the Temperature and Weight of Steam at - 
different Pressures from 1 Pound per Square Inch to 300 
Pounds, and the Quantity of Steam produced from 1 
Cubic Inch of Water, according to Pressure. 

CENTRAL AND MECHANICAL FORCES AND DEFINITIONS. 
MENSURATION OF THE CIRCLE, CYLINDER, SPHERE, ETC. 
PROPERTIES OF THE CIRCLE. 

Table containing the Diameters, Circumferences, and 
Areas of Circles from 7; of an Inch to 20 Inches, advanc- 
ing by 7; of an Inch up to 10 Inches, and by 3} of an 
Inch from 10 Inches to 20 Inches. 

LOGARITHMS. 
Table of Logarithms of Numbers from 0 to 1000, 
HYPERBOLIC LOGARITHMS. 

Table of Hyperbolic Logarithms, 

RULES FOR FINDING THE ELASTICITY OF STEEL SPRINGS. 

Table showing the Actual Extension of Wrought-iron at 
Various Temperatures. 

Table deduced from Experiments on Iron Plates for 
Steam-boilers, by the Franklin Institute, Philadelphia. 

Table showing the result of Experiments made on different 
Brands of Boiler Iron at the Stevens Institute of Tech- 
nology, Hoboken, New Jersey. 


30 


CONTENTS. 


Table showing the Weight of Cast-iron Balls from 3 to 13 
Inches in Diameter. 
Table showing the Weight of Cast-iron Plates per Super- 
ficial Foot as per Thickness. 
Table showing the Weight of Cast-iron Pipes, 1 Foot in 
Length, from 4 Inch to 1} Inches thick, and from 3 to 
24 Inches Diaweiss 
Table oe. the Weight of Boiler-plates 1 Foot Square 
and from =. Inch to an Inch thick. 
Table showing the Weight of Square Bar-iron, from 3 inch 
to 6 Inches Square, 1 Foot long. 
Table showing the Weight of Round-iron from } Inch to 6 
Inches Diameter, 1 Foot long. 
How To MARK ENGINEERS’ OR MACHINISTS’ TOOLS. 
To PoLIsH BRASS. 
SOLDER. 
CEMENT FOR MAKING STEAM-JOINYTS _AND PATCHING 
STEAM-BOILERS. 


JOINTS. 
RELATIVE VALUE OF FOREIGN AND UNITED STATES 
MONEY. 
Table showing the Load that can be Carried by Man and 
Animals. 


Man or Animal Working a Mechine. 

Table of Coefficients of Frictions between Plane Surfaces. 

Table of Friction Coefficients for different Pressures up to 
the Limits of Abrasion. 

The Prevention and Removal of Scale in Steam Boilers. 


31 


A CATECHISM 


OF 


High-Pressure or Non-Condensing 
STEAM-HNGINES; 


INCLUDING 


THE MODELLING, CONSTRUCTING, RUNNING, AND MAN- 
AGEMENT OF STEAM-ENGINES AND 
STEAM-BOILERS. 


With Paluable illustvations, 


BY 
STEPHEN ROPER, ENGINEER, 


Author of 
“Roper’s Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines,” “ Roper’s Catechism 
of High-Pressure or Non-Condensing Steam-Engines,” “Roper’s 
Hand-Book of the Locomotive,” ‘‘Roper’s Hand-Book of 
Modern Steam Fire-Engines,” “Roper’s Handy-Boeok 
for Engineers,” ‘‘Roper’s Young Engineer’s 
Own Book,” “ Roper’s Use and Abuse of 
the Steam-Boiler,” ‘Questions. fur 
Engineers,” etc. 




















PHILADELPHIA; 


EDWARD MEEKS. 
35% 


ROPER’S CATECHISM 
STHAM HNGLN ES. 


OPINIONS OF THE PRESS, 


From the North American and United States Gazette, 

A Catechism of High-Pressure Steam En- 
gines, by Stephen Roper. Mr. Roper, himself 
@ practical engineer, has undertaken to furnish his 
fellow-engineers with the information experience has 
shown him to be most valuable. A number of tables 
of constant utility are furnished, and many rules and 
much practical advice. The work is plain rather than 
scientific in its language, and, claiming to be the only 
one expressly calculated for engineers, cannot fail to 
find quick demand and be of great value. 


From the Scientific American, 

A Catechism of High-Pressure or Non-Con- 
densing Steam Engines, by Stephen Roper, En- 
gineer. This isa valuable book on the steam engine 
It contains much needed general information for en- 
gineers, as well as a description of many American 
improvements and specialties in steam engineering 

33 


CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTION. 
THE STEAM-ENGINE. 
WATER. 
AIR. 
HEAT. 
THE THERMOMETER. 
Comparative Scale of English, French, and German 
Thermometers. 
STEAM. 
Table showing the Temperature of Steam at different 
Pressures. 
THE ENGINEER. 
THE STEAM-BOILER. 
Cylinder Boilers. 
Flue Boilers. 
Tubular Boilers. 
Double-Deck Boilers. 
Locomotive Boilers. 
Mud-Drums. 
Boiler-Heads. 
Boiler-Shells. 
Steel Boilers. 
Internal and External Pressures. 
Rules. 
Table of Internal Pressures. 
Foaming in Steam-Boilers. Rust. 
Patent Steam-Boilers. 
THE SAFETY-VALVE. 
FEED-WATER HEATERS. 
FUEL. 
CHIMNEYS. 
34 


CONTENTS. 


SMOKE. 

GRATE-BARS. 

]JUTIES OF AN ENGINEER IN THE CARE AND MANAGE 
MENT OF THE STEAM-BOILER. 

STEAM-ENGINES. 

Table showing the Average Pressure of the Steam upon 
the Piston throughout the Stroke. 

Lap on the Slide- Valve. ; 

Table showing the Amount of “ Lap” required for 
Slide-Valves when the Steam is to be worked ex- 
pansively. 

Lead on the Slide- Valve. 

* Cushion.” 

Setting Valves. 

Size of Steam-Port. 

Size of Steam-Pipe. 

Size of Piston-Rod. 

Material for Different Parts of Engines. 

Proportions of Engines. 

Reversing an Engine. 

Putting an Engine in Line. 

Setting up Engines. 

RULES FOR THE CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF THE 
_ S§TEAM-ENGINE. 
DIFFERENT KINDS OF ENGINES. 
KNOCKING IN ENGINES. 
VACUUM. 
THE INDICATOR. 
THE GOVERNOR. 
THE INJECTOR. 
STEAM-PUMPS. 
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS. 
85 


CONTENTS. 


NOoIsELESS BoILER FEED-PUMP. 

Directions for Setting Up Steam-Pumps.. 

Table containing the Diameter, Circumferences, and 
Areas of Circles, and the Cubical Contents of Cyl. 
inders, in Gallons. 

PisToN-Rop PACKING. 
INCRUSTATION, 
BoILER EXPLOSIONS, 
STEAM- AND FIRE-REGULATOR. 
CENTRAL AND MECHANICAL FORCES, 
MENSURATION. 

Circle, Cylinder, Sphere, ete. 
BELTING. 

Leather Belts. 

Lacing Belts. 

Horizontal Belts. 

Perpendicular Belts. 

Greasing Belts. 

Rules for finding the Proper Width of Belts. 

RULES TO BE OBSERVED IN CASE OF ACCIDENTS, 
A BrieF HIsTORY OF THE STEAM-ENGINE. 

History of the Different Parts of the Steam-Engine in 
Detail. 

VOCABULARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS as applied to Differ- 
ent Parts of Steam-Engines and Steam-Boilers. 

PROPORTIONS of Steam-Engines according to the best 
modern practice. 

CEMENT for making Steam-Joints and patching Steam- 

Boilers. 

How to mark Engineers’ or Machinists’ Tools. 
To polish Brass, 
Non-Conpuctors for Steam-Pipes and Cylinders, 


€ 86 


oe 


re eo 


AS pe wes 





ie Sg ee ae 


we 





THE 


ENGINEER’S HANDY-BOOK. 


CONTAINING 


A FULL EXPLANATION OF THE STEAM-ENGINE INDICATOR, AND [ITS 
USE AND ADVANTAGES TO ENGINEERS AND STEAM USERS. 
WITH FORMULZ FOR ESTIMATING THE POWER OF ALL 
CLASSES OF STEAM-ENGINES; ALSO, FACTS, FIGURES, 
QUESTIONS, AND TABLES FOR ENGINEERS WHO WISH 
TO QUALIFY THEMSELVES FOR THE UNITED 
STATES NAVY, THE REVENUE SERVICE, rHE . 
MERCANTILE MARINE, OR TO TAKE 
CHARGE OF THE BETTER CLASS OF 
STATIONARY STEAM-ENGINES. 


With illustrations, 


BY 


STEPHEN ROPER, ENGINEER, 
Author of 


*Roper’s Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines,” “ Roper’s Catechism 
of High-Pressure or Non-Condensing Steam-HEngines,” ‘“Roper’s 
Hand-Book of the Locomotive,” ‘‘Roper’s Hand-Book of 
Modern Steam Fire-Engines,” “Roper’s Handy-Book 
for Engineers,” ‘‘Roper’s Young Engineer’s 
Own Book,” “Roper’s Use and Abuse of 
the Steam-Boiler,” ‘Questions for 
Engineers,” etc. 





PHILADELPHIA: 


EDWARD MEEKS. 
4 37 


This Book treats on every branch of 


Steam Engineering 


AND 


Sieam-Engines of Every Description 


In use at the present day,— 


CONDENSING, NON-CONDENSING, 
SIMPLE, AND COMPOUND, 


for Whatever Purpose Employed, 
whether for 


Engineering, Manufacturing, Pumping, Loco- 


motion, Mining, Hoisting, or Propulsion, 


AND IS MORE FULLY ILLUSTRATED THAN 
ANY OTHER WORK EVER HERETOFORE 
PUBLISHED ON THE SAME SUBJECT. 


38 





OE a ee ey ee = ees ee 


OPINIONS OF THE PRESS 


ON 


Roper's Engineer's Handy-Book. 





The Manufacturer and Builder, New York. 


AN ENGINEER’s Hanpy-Boox.—Mr. Roper, the writer 
of this work, is well known to many of our readers as the 
author of a number of useful reference books relating to steam- 
engineering, which have become deservedly popular by reason 
of their plain, intelligible style, and their freedom from un- 
necessary and confusing mathematical technicalities. We 
would be glad to see Roper’s hand-books largely multiplied 
and distributed in every workshop, for it is only out of books 
of this kind that the average workman will be able to master 
the principles of his handiwork. 


Millstone, Indianapolis, Ind. < 


“THp ENGINEER'S Hanpy-Boox,” by Stephen Roper 
Engineer, is a practical treatise on the management of the 
steam-engine. The author says the book was “not written 
for the purpose of instructing engineers how to design or 
proportion steam-engines or boilers, but rather to inform 
them how to take care of and manage them intelligently.” 
The declaration is carried out in the plainest and most sys- 
tematic manner. 

As a text-book for students in mechanical engineering, it 
will be found of great value. Its illustrations and tabulated 
matter are zmportant features, and printed in excellent style 

29 


OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. 


National Car-Builder, New York. 

Roper’s ENGINEER’S HAnNDy-Boox.—This compact and 
comprehensive little volume contains a vast amount of in- 
formation relative to the care and management of every class 
of steam-engines. It is profusely illustrated, and abounds 
in facts, figures, rules, tables, questions and answers, formule, 
etc., that are exceedingly valuable to engineers, and of easy 
reference by means of a copious and well-arranged index. 
The various subjects are discussed with brevity and clearness, 
and with a freedom from technicality which enables the 
reader to get at the pith of the matter without fishing it out 
from an ocean of words. A prominent feature of the book is 
a full explanation of the steam-engine indicator, and its use 
and advantages to engineers and others. 


Leffel’s Illustrated News, Springfield, Ohio. 

ENGINEER’S Hanpy-Boox: By Stephen Roper, Engineer. 
—The author of the valuable series of hand-books which we 
have before referred to, has just issued the above-named work, 
which must find ready way into the hands of engineers and 
steam-users throughout the entire land. It contains a full 
explanation of the steam-engine indicator, its uses and ad- 
vantages, with formulee for estimating the power of all classes 
of steam-engines; also facts, figures, questions, and tables for 
engineers who wish to qualify themselves for the United 
States navy, the revenue service, the merchant marine, or 
the better class of stationary engines. 


The American Engineer, Chicago, Ill. 

THE ENGINEER'S Hanpy-Book.—We are in receipt of 
the above work, which contains a description of the various 
forms of engines now in use, and supplies interesting and 
useful information as to the care, management, and remedy 
of defects of steam machinery and its appendages, with tables 
for calculating the power of engines. 

40 





OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. 


American Machinist, New York. 


Roprer’s ENGINEER’s Hanpy-Boox.—The subjects in 
this work have been treated in a brief and comprehensive 
way, therefore the reader is not required to read a number 
of chapters in order to acquire a little knowledge. The use 
of the indicator is’ treated in a plain, practical way, so that 
it may be readily understood. Abstruse formulas have been 
omitted and simple arithmetic used, thus avoiding the usual 
vexations among practical men who are uneducated in the 
higher mathematics. The author has in this book given the 
results of his own practical experience, which extenus over 
a period of thirty years and upwards, and the work will 
deubtless be read with pleasure and profit by very many 
practical mechanics. 


Engineering News, New York. 

An “ ENGINEER'S HANDY-Boox.”—Asa writer on subjects 
relating to steam and steam-engineering, Mr. Roper is now 
too well known to need any further introduction. In this, 
his latest contribution to steam-engineering literature, Mr. 
Roper has aimed to present to his brother engineers a “ handy 
book ” that will be to them what Trautwine’s “‘ Pocket-Book” 
is to civil engineers, and in duing this he has spared no labor 
in collecting and editing his materials. Some idea of the 
completeness of the work may be gathered from the state- 
ment of the publishers that it contains nearly 300 main sub- 
jects, 1316 paragraphs, 876 questions and answers, 52 sugges 
tions and instructions, 105 rules, formule, and examples, 149 
tables, 164 illustrations, 31 indicator diagrams, and 167 tech. 
nical ierms; over 3000 different subjects. 


Boston Journal of Commerce. 
Mr. SterpHEen RopER is well known as the author of several] 
other handy-books that treat on steam, steam-boilers, and 


engines. This new work is, in our judgment, his best. 
4% Al 


OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. 


The Scientific American, New York. 

A WELL made pocket-book of practical information for me: 
¢, anical engineers, particularly those of limited education, 
ard such as may wish to qualify themselves for service in 
the U.S. Navy or the mercantile marine. The more impor- 
tant engines in use are clearly described, and formule are 
given for estimating their power. Particular attention is 
paid to the steam-engine indicator, its use and advantages. 
The author has had much experience in this class of work, 
and writes clearly and plainly. 


The Locomotive, Hartford, Conn. 

Roper’s ENGINEER’S HAnpy-Boox.—This last work of 
Mr. Roper is of special value to all who have to do with 
steam-hoilers and engines, and it will be found a valuable 
shop companion for the mechanic. There are a great many 
facts collated that are not easily reached except through ex- 
pensive books and libraries. These will be found of service 
to all classes of men, whether in trade or manufacturing. 
We commend it heartily, and believe it will have a large sale. 


Forest, Forge, and Farm, llion, N. Y. 

ENGINEER’s HANpby-Book.—We have received a book 
with the above title, by the well-known author and engineer, 
Stephen Roper, who has written a number of works on the 
subject of engineering. The eminent reputation of the 
author is a sufficient guarantee that the book is both inter- 
esting and useful. Mr. Roper has had an experience of over 
thirty-five years with all kinds of engines and boilers, and 
thoroughly understands locomotive, fire, marine, and station: 
ary engines. 


42 


CONTENTS. 


THE ENGINEER. 

FACTS THAT SHOULD BE BORNE IN MIND BY ENGI: 
NEERS. 

STEAM-ENGINEERING AS A SCIENCE. 

EXAMINATION OF CANDIDATES FOR CADET ENGI- 
NEERS IN THE U. S. Navy. 

INSTRUCTIONS HOW TO PREPARE FOR. EXAMINATION 
FOR ENGINEER IN THE U.S. NAVY AND REVENUE 
SERVICE, 

INSTRUCTIONS HOW TO OBTAIN AN ENGINEER’S Li- 
CENSE IN THE MERCANTILE MARINE SERVICE. 

INSTRUCTIONS HOW TO PROCURE A LICENSE TO TAKE 
CHARGE OF STATIONARY ENGINES IN ANY STATE 
OR CITY REQUIRING IT. 

THE STEAM-ENGINE INDICATOR; ITs CoNsTRUC- 
TION AND UTILITY. 


DIFFERENT KINDS OF INDICATORS. 


FUNCTIONS OF THE INDICATOR. 

TECHNICAL TERMS EMPLOYED IN CONNECTION WITH 
THE INDICATOR. 

How To ATTACH THE INDICATOR. 

MOTION OF THE PAPER ON THE DRUM OF THE IN: 


DICATOR, 
43 


CONTENTS. 


Most CorreEcT METHOD OF ADJUSTING THE INDICA: 
TOR. 

Most RELIABLE PARTS OF THE STEAM-ENGINE TO 
WHICH TO ATTACH THE INDICATOR. 

How To ACCURATELY TEST THE ATTACHMENTS OF 
THE INDICATOR. 

THE INDICATOR DIAGRAM. 

THE EXPLANATORY DIAGRAM. 

THE THEORETIC DIAGRAM. 

THE AcTuAL DIAGRAM. 

ANALYSIS OF THE DIAGRAM, 

ANALYSIS OF THE DIAGRAM SIMPLIFIED, 

ANALYSIS OF THE DIAGRAM MADE EFAsy. 

DIAGRAMS TAKEN FROM AUTOMATIC CUT-OFF EN: 
GINES. 

DIAGRAMS TAKEN FROM THROTTLING ENGINES. 

DIAGRAMS TAKEN FROM COMPOUND ENGINES. 

DIAGRAMS TAKEN FROM SIMPLE ENGINES. 

DIAGRAMS TAKEN FROM LOCOMOTIVES. 

DIAGRAMS TAKEN FROM CONDENSING ENGINES. 

INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING AN ANALYSIS OF DIA- 
GRAMS. 

INSTRUCTIONS HOW TO SPACE THE ORDINATES. 

THE THEORETICAL EXPANSION CURVE. i 

APPLICATION OF THE ‘THEORETICAL EXPANSION 
CURVE. 

How To DRAW THE THEORETICAL EXPANSION CURVE. 

How To LOCATE THE THEORETICAL TERMINAL PRESS- 
URE. 

How TO CALCULATE THE MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESS: 


URE. 
44 


CONTENTS. 


How To CALCULATE THE THEORETICAL ECONOMY BY 
THE DIAGRAM. 

How To CALCULATE THE THEORETICAL RATE OF 
WATER CONSUMPTION BY THE DIAGRAM. 

How TO MAKE ALLOWANCE FOR CUSHION AND 
CLEARANCE, 

How To ESTIMATE THE EFFECTIVE COMPRESSION. 

WHat INDICATOR DIAGRAMS SHOW. 

THE PLANIMETER. 

STEAM. 

SUPERHEATED STEAM. 

TEMPERATURE OF STEAM. 

VOLUME OF STEAM. . 

SURCHARGED STEAM. 

EVAPORATION OF STEAM. 

RE-EVAPORATION OF STEAM. 

LATENT HEAT OF STEAM. 

SENSIBLE HEAT OF STEAM. 

HEAT NECESSARY TO GENERATE STEAM. 

THE QUANTITY OF WATER NECESSARY TO CONDENSE 
A CERTAIN QUANTITY OF STEAM. 

TABLES OF VOLUMES OF STEAM FOR DIFFERENT 
PRESSURES. 

WEIGHT OF STEAM. 

EFFLUENT VELOCITY OF STEAM AT DIFFERENT PRESS 

. URES. 

STEAM WORKED EXPANSIVELY. 

STEAM-J ACKETS. 

STEAM-DOMES. 

STEAM-JETS. 

STEAM-CHIMNEYS. 


CONTENTS, 


RELATIVE VOLUME OF STEAM AT DIFFERENT PRESS- 
URES. 

RELATIVE VOLUME OF STEAM TO THE WATER FROM 
WHICH IT WAS GENERATED. 

RELATIVE QUANTITY OF WATER REQUIRED TO CoNn- 
DENSE STEAM. 

STEAM GENERATED FROM FRESH AND SALT WATERS. 

CONDENSATION OF STEAM IN STEAM-CYLINDERS AND 
PIPES. 

QUANTITY OF STEAM REQUIRED FOR HEATING PUR- 
POSES. 

STEAM AS A MEANS OF PUTTING OUT FIRES, 

THE EXPANSIVE PROPERTIES OF STEAM. 

STEAM-ENGINES. 

PECULIARITIES OF DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF 
THE ENGINES OF THE DIFFERENT LINES OF 
STEAMSHIPS PLYING BETWEEN THE DIFFERENT 
PoRTS OF THIS COUNTRY AND THOSE OF OTHER 
PARTS OF THE WORLD, WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF 
THE SAME, 

PECULIARITIES OF DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF 
ALL THE DIFFERENT AUTOMATIC CUT-OFF STA- 
TIONARY ENGINES OF THIS COUNTRY, WITH DE- 
SCRIPTIONS. 

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AUTOMATIC CUT-OFF 
AND THROTTLING ENGINES. 

THE ADVANTAGES OF AUTOMATIC CUT-OFF ENGINES 
OVER THROTTLING, AND VICE VERSA. 

THE ADVANTAGES OF LARGE STEAM-ENGINES OVER 
SMALL ONES, AND VICE VERSA. 

THE ADVANTAGES OF HORIZONTAL ENGINES OVER 
VERTICAL, AND VICE VERSA. 

46 


CONTENTS. 


THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF THE 
DIFFERENT STEAM-ENGINE CUT-OFFS, VIZ:, THE 
AUTOMATIC, POSITIVE, ADJUSTABLE, AND RIDING. 

A DESCRIPTION OF ALL THE CUT-OFFS IN USE ON 
STATIONARY AND MARINE ENGINES AT THE 
PRESENT Day. 

THE ADVANTAGES OF DIFFERENT CUT-OFFS OVER 
EAacH OTHER. 

THE Causes Most LIKELY TO INDUCE SOME STEAM- 
ENGINES TO DEVELOP LESS POWER THAN THEY 
OUGHT TO DO, WHILE OTHERS WOULD DEVELOP 
MORE. 

PROPORTIONS OF ALL THE DIFFERENT ENGINES IN 
UsE AT THE PRESENT Day, ACCORDING TO AC- 
CURATE SCALE. 

THE Two CLASSES OF ENGINES IN Most GENERAL 
USE IN THE WORLD. 

THE ADVANTAGES OF THE CONDENSING OVER THE 
Non-CONDENSING ENGINE, AND VICE VERSA. 
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SIMPLE AND COMPOUND 
ENGINES, THEIR ADVANTAGES AND DISADVAN- 
TAGES. : 

How THE POWER OF ANY STEAM-ENGINE MAY BR 
INCREASED WITHIN CERTAIN LIMITS. 

THE QUANTITY OF FUEL IT WILL REQUIRE TO DE- 
VELOP A HorSE-POWER IN DIFFERENT ENGINES, 

THE QUANTITY OF WATER THAT WILL PRODUCE A 
HorsE-POWER IN THE MOST IMPROVED STEAM: 
ENGINES, AS WELL AS THE QUANTITY REQUIRED 
FOR THOSE OF INFERIOR TYPE. 

THE DIFFERENCE IN PoINT OF ECONOMY BETWEEN 
CONDENSING AND NON-CONDENSING ENGINES. 

AT 


CONTENTS. 


THE DIFFERENCE IN First Cost, Cost or MAINTEN: 
ANCE BETWEEN CONDENSING AND NoN-CONDENS 
ING ENGINES. 

THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF FAST AND 
Stow SPEED ENGINES. 

WHY CERTAIN TYPES OF ENGINES HAVE BEEN ABAN: 
DONED, AND OTHERS ADOPTED. 

HiGH-PRESSURE COMPOUND ENGINES. 

LOW-PRESSURE COMPOUND ENGINES. 

SCHEMES FOR REVOLUTIONIZING THE ECONOMY OF 
STEAM-ENGINES. | 

STEAM-ENGINE ECONOMY. 

INSTRUCTIONS FOR PLACING STEAM-ENGINES IN 
STEAMSHIPS, TuG- AND FERRY-BOATS. 

INSTRUCTIONS FOR SETTING Up, LINING, AND RE- 
VERSING STATIONARY STEAM-ENGINES. 

RuLES FOR ESTIMATING THE POWER OF STEAM- 
ENGINES BY FORMULZ, AND BY INDICATOR Dt- 
AGRAMS. 

RULES FOR FINDING THE RIGHT SIZE ENGINE TO DO 
A CERTAIN AMOUNT OF WORK. 

RULE FOR FINDING THE SIZE OF THE CYLINDER FOR 
AN ENGINE OF ANY POWER, WHEN THE PRESS- 
URE AND TRAVEL OF THE PISTON ARE KNOWN, 

RULE FOR FINDING THE QUANTITY OF STEAM ANY 
ENGINE WILL REQUIRE. 

RULES FOR THE CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF ALL 
CLASSES OF STEAM-ENGINES, 

STEAM-ENGINE GOVERNORS. 

SLIDE- VALVES, 

LAP ON THE SLIDE- VALVE, 

LEAD ON THE SLIDE-VALVE. 

48 


CONTENTS, 


How To TELL THE AMOUNT OF LAP AND LEAD OR 
A SLIDE-VALVE WITHOUT OPENING THE STEAM- 


CHEST. 


TABLE SHOWING THE AMOUNT OF LAP REQUIRED 


FOR ANY DESIRED CUT-OFF, 


RULE FOR FINDING THE AMOUNT OF LAP NECESSARY 


FOR ANY DESIRED CUT-OFF. 
How To Set A SLIDE-VALVE ACCURATELY. 
FRICTION OF SLIDE- VALVES, 
BALANCED SLIDE- VALVES, 
PuPPET-V ALVES, 
DouBLE-BEAT VALVES. 
THROTTLE-V ALVES, 
RELIEF-V ALVES. 
RoTAaRY- V ALVES, 
SEMI-ROTARY OR OSCILLATING- VALVES. 
BASKET-VALVES. 
GRIDIRON- V ALVES, 
VALVE-GEAR. 
KELEASING VALVE-GEAR. 
INDEPENDENT VALVE-GEAR. 
KXPANSION VALVE-GEAR. 
REVERSING VALVE-GEAR. 
WHOLE-STROKE VALVE-GEAR, 
VOCABULARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS AS APP) ,.£D 


TO 


THE DIFFERENT PARTS °F THE VALVE-G&AR OF 


STEAM-ENGINES. 


Srop-Cocks, VALVES, AND PIPES FOR WHATEVER 
PurRPosE EMPLOYED IN CONNECTION WITH 


STEAM-ENGINES, 
Brp-PLATES AND Hovusinas, 
STEAM-CYLINDERS. 

5 49 


CONTENTS. 


OYLINDER-HEAD BOLts. 
STEAM-PISTONS. 
SPRING-PISTONS. 
PIsTON-Rops. 
STUFFING- BOXES. 
STEAM- AND EXHAUST-PIPES, 
ROcK-SHAFTS. 
Cross-HEADS. 
EccENTRICS. 
CRANKS. 
CRANK-PIN BEARINGS. 
CRANK-SHAFT JOURNALS. 
Keys, JIBS, AND STRAPS. 
ELY- WHEELS. 
THE LINK FULLY ILLUSTRATED AND EXPLAINED. 
SHIFTING LINKS. 
STATIONARY LINKS. 
CONDENSERS, SURFACE, AND JET, : 
PROPORTIONS OF CONDENSERS. 
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF DIFFERENT 
CONDENSERS, 
RELATIVE QUANTITIES OF WATER REQUIRED FOB 
THE Two METHODS OF CONDENSATION. 
THE INJECTOR CONDENSER. 
KortTING’s JET-CONDENSER. 
THE VACUUM. 
How THE VACUUM 18 MEASURED. 
How THE VACUUM IS MAINTAINED. 
How THE VACUUM Is PRODUCED, 
Tne EFFECT OF THE VACUUM. 
AIR-PUMPS. 
50 


¥ 


CONTEN'SS. 


CAPACITY OF AIR-PUMPsS ACCORDING TO BEST Mon 
_ ERN PRACTICE. 

RELATIVE PROPORTION OF AIR-PUMP CYLINDERS TO 
THE CYLINDERS OF MODERN STEAM-ENGINES. 

CIRCULATING PUMPS. 

DIFFERENT KINDS OF CIRCULATING PUMPS. 

RELATIVE PROPORTIONS OF CIRCULATING PUMPS. 

MARINE PUMPS. 

WRECKING PUMPS. 

THE SALIOMETER. 

BAROMETER GAUGES. 

THERMOMELERS, 

MARINE-ENGINE REGISTERS. 

Sprinc, Mercury, SYPHON, AND VACUUM GAUGES, 

TABLE OF RHOMBS, OR POINTS OF THE COMPASS, 

TECHNICAL TERMS AND DEFINITIONS USED IN NAvV- 
IGATION. 

TABLES OF KNOTS AND MILES AS MEASURED BY 
VARiIous NATIONS, 

TABLE OF LEAGUES AND MILES. 

LENGTH OF THE DAY AT DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE 
WorLD. 

SAILING DISTANCE IN GEOGRAPHICAL MILES FROM 
New YORK TO DIFFERENT POINTS ON THR 
GLOBE. 

LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE OF DIFFERENT PLACES. 

MARINE SIGNALS. 

MARINE BELL, WHISTLE, AND LIGHT SIGNALS, 

RAILROAD SIGNALS, 

PuMPs. 

-FEED-PUMPS: THEIR CAPACITY, ETC. 

INJECTORS: THEIR CAPACITY, EFFICIENCY, ETO, 

51 


CONTENTS. 


SCREW-PROPELLERS. 

THE SCREW AS A MEANS OF PROPULSION. 

DIFFERENT KINDS OF SCREW-PROPELLERS. 

THRUST-BLOCKS. 

STERN-TUBES. 

PADDLE-W HEELS. 

DIFFERENT KINDS OF PADDLE-WHEELS. 

COMPARATIVE EFFICIENCY OF SCREW-PROPELLERS 
AND PADDLE- WHEELS. 

Arr: Irs WEIGHT, HEIGHT, EFFECT, ETC. 

TABLE SHOWING THE WEIGHT OF THE ATMOSPHERE 
AT DIFFERENT ALTITUDES ABOVE SEA LEVEL. 

TABLE SHOWING THE FORCE OF THE WIND. 

TABLE SHOWING THE RELATIVE VOLUME OF AIR AT 
DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES. 

FUEL. 

DIFFERENT KINDS OF FUEL: THEIR COMPARATIVE 
VALUE, ETC. 

THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF DIFFERENT KINDS 
OF FUEL. 

HEAT. 

EFFECTS OF HEAT. 

CAPACITY OF DIFFERENT BODIES FOR HEAT, 

DIAMETERS, CIRCUMFERENCES, AND AREAS OF CIR- 
CLES. 

METALS AND ALLOYS. 

MARINE BOILERS. ’ 

DIFFERENT KINDS OF MARINE BOILERS. 

VOCABULARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS AS APPLIED TO. 
DIFFERENT PARTS OF MARINE BOILERS. 

VOCABULARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS AS APPLIED TO 
DIFFERENT PARTS OF MARINE ENGINES. 

52 


CONTENTS. 


SuPER-HEATERS. 

FEED-WATER HEATERS. 

FUNNELS. 

SMOKE-STACKS. 

AIR-CASINGS. 

BLAST-PIPEs, 

SPANNER-GUARDS. 

MEANING OF THE TERM MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE, 

MEANING OF THE TERM AVERAGE PRESSURE. 

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MEAN EFFECTIVE AND AVER- 
AGE PRESSURE. 

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BOILER PRESSURE AND PRESS- 
URE PER GAUGE. 

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BOILER AND CYLINDER PRESS- 
URES. ; 

CAUSES OF DECREASE OF PRESSURE BETWEEN BOIL- 
ERS AND CYLINDERS. 

CAUSES WHY BOILER PRESSURES DO NOT REPRESENT 
CYLINDER PRESSURES. 

THE PROBABLE AVERAGE PRESSURE IN ANY STEAM- 
CYLINDER AS COMPARED WITH THE BOILER 
PRESSURE, 

Wuy BorLerR PRESSURES CANNOT BE REALIZED IN 
THE OYLINDERS OF STEAM-ENGINES. 

MISTAKES IN EMPLOYING BOILER PRESSURES IN Es- 
‘TIMATING THE POWER OF STEAM-ENGINES. 

TABLES OF CIRCUMFERENCES, DIAMETERS, AND ARBAS 
OF CIRCLES FROM 4 TO 100 INCHES. 

TABLES OF LOGARITHMS FROM 0 TO 1000. 

TABLES OF HYPERBOLIC LOGARITHMS, 

Use oF LOGARITHMS. 

UtirstTy OF LOGARITHMd 

5* 53 


CONTENTE. 


GEOMETRY. 
‘tT RIGONOMETRY. 
MENSURATION, 
NAVIGATION. 
GEOGRAPHY. 
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 
AXIOMS. 
THEOREMS. 
PROPOSITIONS. 
SOLUTIONS. 
COROLLARIES. 
TABLES OF SQUARES, CUBES, AND CUBE-RooTs 
NUMBERS FROM 1 To 1000. 
MEANING OF THE TERM “ CUBED.” 
MEANING OF THE TERM “SQUARED.” 
MEANING OF THE TERM “ QUOTIENT.” 
MEANING OF THE TERM “ PRODUCT.” 
ADDITION, 
SUBTRACTION. 
MULTIPLICATION. 
DIVISION. 
PROPORTION. 
CoMMON FRACTIONS. 
DECIMALS. 
‘TRIANGLES. 
EQUILATERAL. 
[SOSCELES, 
SCALENE, 
ACUTE. 
OBTUSE. 
RicgHt ANGLE, EY. 
54 


OF 











CONTENTS. 


THE CENTENNIAL CORLISS ENGINE, 

WRIGHT’s AUTOMATIC CuT-OFF ENGINE. 

THE Wooppury, BootH & PRYOR’s AUTOMATIC 
CuT-OFF ENGINE. 

DOUBLE-SLIDE VALVES. 

SEMI-ROTARY VALVES. 

THE BROWN AUTOMATIC CUT-OFF ENGINE. 

THE HARRIS CORLISS ENGINE. 

MARINE ENGINES. ; 

MODERN MARINE COMPOUND ENGIIES, 

SECTIONS OF MARINE COMPOUND ENGINES. 

SECTION OF SLIDE-VALVE ENGINE. 

TEE WoopRUFF & BEACH AUTOMATIC CUT-OFF 
HIGH-PRESSURE ENGINE. 

EXPANSION GEARS. 

THE PUTNAM MACHINE COMPANY’s AUTOMATIC 
CuT-OFF ENGINE. 


THE GREEN AUTOMATIC CuT-OFF HIGH-PRESSURE 


ENGINE. 
THE DOUGLASS AUTOMATIC CUT-OFF ENGINE. 
THE BABBITT & HARRIS STEAM-PISTON. 
PISTON, CONNECTING-ROD, AND CRANK-CONNEC- 
TION. 
THe REYNOLDS CORLISS ENGINE. 
Tuoi CRANK. 
THE LINK. 
VALVE-GEARS. s 
THE WATERTOWN AUTOMATIC CUT-OFF ENGINE. 
THE WATERS GOVERNOR. 
THE SHIVE GOVERNOR. 
REVERSING-GEAR FOR STEAM-ENGINES. 
DIAGRAMS OF SLIDE-VALVE. 
55 


CONTENTS. 


WHEELOCK’S AUTOMATIC CuT-OFF ENGINE. 

SECTION OF THE CYLINDER, PISTON, STEAM- AND 
EXHAUST- VALVES OF WHEELOCK’S AUTOMATIC 
CuT-OFF ENGINE. 

POPPET VALVES. 

SLIDE-V ALVES. 

THE WELLS Two-PISTON BALANCE-ENGINE. 

SECTION OF THE WELLS TWwo-PISTON BALANCE- 
ENGINE. 

THE WARDWELL VALVELESS ENGINE. 

THE STEAM-ENGINE INDICATOR. 

SECTION OF THE INDICATOR. 

THOMPSON’S INDICATOR. 

RICHARDS’ PARALLEL MOTION /.W_U1laTOR. 

THE ATLAS CORLISS ENGINE. 

INDICATOR DIAGRAMS, 

THE PLANIMETER. 

DIAGRAM MEASURED BY THE -LANIMETER. 

THE PoRTER-ALLEN HIGH-SpvED ENGINE. 

END VIEW OF A SURFACE CONDENSER. 

THE INJECTOR CONDENSER. 

INDEPENDENT CONDENSER AND AIR-PUMP. 

INDEPENDENT AIR- AND CIRCULATING-PUMP, WITH 
AIR-PUMP AT ONE END, CIRCULATING-PUMP 
AT THE OTHER, AND STEAM-CYLINDER IN 
THE MIDDLE. 

SECTION OF MARINE AIR-PUMP. 

INDEPENDENT MARINE CIRCULATING-PUMP, 

MARINE WRECKING-PUMP. 

THE SALINOMETER. 

THE HOTWELL THERMOMETER. 

THE UPTAKE THERMOMETER. 

56 


CONTENTS. 


MARINE STEAM-ENGINE REGISTER, 

SPRING STEAM-GAUGES. 

MARINE WHISTLE SIGNALS, 

MARINE LIGHT SIGNALS, 

MARINE BELL SIGNALS. 

RAILROAD SIGNALS, 

PUMPS. 

WILLIAM SELLERS & Co.’s LIFTING INJECTORS. 

SECTION OF WILLIAM SELLERS & Co.’s LIFTING 
INJECTOR. 

RvuE’s ‘‘ LITTLE GIANT”? INJECTOR. 

FRIEDMAN’S INJECTOR. 

THE KEYSTONE INJECTOR. 

THE ECLIPSE INJECTOR. 

THE CLIPPER ADJUSTABLE INJECTOR, 

SECTION OF CLIPPER INJECTOR. 

MACK’S FIXED-N0OZZLE INJECTOR. 

THE INSPIRATOR. 

THE EJECTOR OR LIFTER. 

JAMISON’S STEAM WATER-EJECTOR. 

WATER-TUBULAR MARINE-BOILER. 

FIRE-TUBULAR MARINE-BOILER. 

DIRECT FLUE AND RETURN TUBULAR MARINE- 
BOILER. 

METHOD OF BRACING MARINE STEAM-BOILERS. 

THE BUCKEYE AUTOMATIC HIGH-PRESSURE CUT- 
OFF ENGINE, 

DIAGRAMS OF CIRCLES, 

THE WETHERILL CORLISS ENGINE. 

DIAGRAM OF STEAM-JOINTS. 

THE FITCHBURG STEAM-ENGINE. 

THE FITCHBURG GOVERNOR. . 

57 . 


CONTENTS, 


THE ENGINEER’S HANDY-BOOK CONTAINS NEAR- 
LY 300 MAIN SUBJECTS, 1816 PARAGRAPHS, 876 
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS, 52 SUGGESTIONS AND 
INSTRUCTIONS, 105 RULES, FORMUL2, AND EXx- 
AMPLES, 149 TABLES, 195 ILLUSTRATIONS, 31 INDI- 
CATOR DIAGRAMS, AND 167 TECHNICAL TERMS; 
OVER 3000 DIFFERENT SUBJECTS, WITH THE QUES- 
TIONS MOST LIKELY TO BE ASKED WHEN UNDER EX- 
AMINATION, BEFORE BEING COMMISSIONED AS AN 
ENGINEER IN THE U.S. NAVY OR REVENUE SER- 
VICE; BEFORE BEING LICENSED AS AN ENGINEER 
IN THE MERCANTILE MARINE SERVICE, OR RE- 
CEIVING A CERTIFICATE TO TAKE CHARGE OF A 
STEAM-ENGINE OR BOILER IN LOCATIONS WHERE 
SUCH CERTIFICATE IS NECESSARY. THERE IS NOT 
A SUBJECT WITHIN THE WHOLE RANGE OF STEAM- 
ENGINEERING ON WHICH IT DOES NOT TREAT. 

WITH A GREAT VARIETY OF OTHER INFORMATION 
NOT TO BE FOUND IN ANY OTHER BOOK EVER PUB- 
LISHED ON THE SAME SUBJECT IN THIS COUNTRY 
OR IN EUROPE, AND MORE FULLY ILLUSTRATED 
THAN ANY OTHER WORK EVER PUBLISHED ON THIS 


SUBJECT. 
35 


USE AND ABUSE 


OF 


THE STEAM-BOILER. 




















BY 


SPrEPHEN ROPER) ENGINEER, 


Author of 
“Roper’s Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines,” “ Ropers Catechism 
ef High-Pressure or Non-Condensing Steam-Engines,” “Roper’s 
Hand-Book of the Locomotive,” ‘‘Roper’s Hand-Book of 
Modern Steam Fire-Engines,” “Roper’s Handy-Book 
for Engineets,” ‘‘Roper’s Young Engineer’s 
Own Book,” “Roper’s Use and Abuse of 
the Steam-Boiler,” ‘Questions for 
Engineers,” ete. 


PHILADELPHIA: 


EDWARD MEEKS. 
59 


Use and Abuse of the Steam-Boiler. 


OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. 


Engineering News, Chicago, Ill. 


Mr. RoPER is the author of several well-known hand-books 
relating to the steam-engine, and steam machinery in general. 
In this, his latest work, he states that his object is, ‘‘ simply to 
show what the results of his thirty years’ personal experience 
with all classes of boilers prove to be the safest and most dura- 
ble materials for their manufacture; to show the absolute ne- 
cessity of good workmanship in their construction, and to call 
the attention of owners, engineers, and firemen to the rules that 
limit their usefulness, safety, and longevity.” As in all his 
other hand-books, the writer addresses himself to men of ordi- 
nary intelligence,— those found in charge of steam-engines and 
boilers,—and in consequence his book is written in the plainest 
and most intelligible language that can be chosen. We have not 
the time, nor possibly the necessary amount of practical knowl- 
edge of all the latest improvements in steam-boilers, to criticise 
slosely and intelligently the contents of the book, but in con- 
nection with it we would call attention to the large number 
of boiler explosions, attended with great loss of life, that have 
recently occurred in this country and in England, and which, 
upon investigation, have been proven to be the results of igno- 
rance and carelessness on the part of attendants ; and we cannot 
but think that steam-users would find it greatly to their advan- 
tage if such plain handy-books as those of Mr. Roper’s were 
placed in the hands of every attendant upon a steam-boiler or 
engine, and his attention called to the advantage of making 


himself familiar with its contents. 
60 


CONTENTS. 


ADJUNCTS OF THE STEAM-BOILER 
STEAM-BOILERS 
DESIGN OF STEAM-BOILERS 
FoRMS OF STEAM-BOILERS 
THE PLAIN CYLINDER BOILEB 
THE FLUE BOILER 
THE TUBULAR BOILER 
THE DOUBLE-DECK BOILER 
THE DROP-FLUE BOILER 
THE LOCOMOTIVE BOILER 
FIRE-BOX BOILERS 
TUBULOUS BOILERS 
S1zE OF BOILERS 
SECTIONAL STEAM-BOILERS 
MARINE BOILERS 
Table showing the Number of Square Feet of 
Heating Surface to 1 Square Foot of Grate Sur- 
face in the Boilers of noted Ocean, River, and 
Ferry-boat Steamers 
BOILER-HEADS 
STEAM-DOMES 
MUD-DRUMS 
WATER-SPACE AND STEAM-ROOM INSTEAM-BOILERS 
6 61 


CONTENTS. 


DIAMETER AND LENGTH OF STEAM-BOILERS AND 
THICKNESS OF BOILER-PLATE 
EVAPORATION IN STEAM-BOILERS 
EVAPORATIVE EFFICIENCY OF STEAM-BOILERS 
CLAPP AND JONES’ VERTICAL CIRCULATING TUBU- 
LAR BOILER 
METHODS OF TESTING THE EVAPORATIVE EFFI- 
CIENCY OF STEAM-BOILERS 
PROPORTION OF GRATE SURFACE TO HEATING 
SURFACE 
INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL CORROSION OF STEAM- 
BOILERS 
INTERNAL GROOVING IN STEAM-BOILERS 
SILSBY’s VERTICAL TUBULAR BOILER 
EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION OF BOILERS 
HEATING-SURFACE OF STEAM-BOILERS 
Rules for finding the Heating-surface of Steam- 
boilers 
THE LATTA STEEL COIL-BOILER 
HORSE-POWER OF STEAM-BOILERS 
THE MOORHOUSE SAFETY SECTIONAL BOILER 
SETTING STEAM-BOILERS 
TESTING STEAM-BOILERS . 
REPAIRING STEAM-BOILERS 
NEGLECT OF STEAM-BOILERS 
THE WIEGAND SECTIONAL BOILER 
SAFE WORKING PRESSURE OF STEAM-BOILERS 
Table of Safe Internal Pressures for Steel Boilers. 
Table of Safe Internal Pressures for Iron Boilers. 
THE ROGER’S AND BLACK BOILER 
SELECTION OF STEAM-BOILERS. 
PULSATION IN STEAM-BOILERS 


Prerce’s RoTary TuRULAR BOILER 
a> 


CONTENTS, 


LOcATION OF STEAM-BOILERS 
THE HARRISON BOILER 
BOILER-FLUES 
Table of Squares of Thickness of Iron, and Con- 
stant Numbers to be used in finding the Safe 
External Pressure for Boiler-flues 
Table of Safe Working External Pressures on 
Flues 10 Feet long 
Table of Safe Working External Pressures on 
Flues 20 Feet long 
COLLAPSING PRESSURE OF W ROUGHT-IRON BOILER- 
FLUES } INCH THICK 
COLLAPSING PRESSURE OF W ROUGHT-IRON BOILER- 
FLUES ;; INCH THICK 
COLLAPSING PRESSURE OF WROUGHT-IRON BOILER- 
FLUES $ INCH THICK 
COLLAPSING PRESSURE OF W ROUGHT-IRON BOILER- 
FLUES 7 INCH THICK 
THE SHAPLEY BOILER 
BorLER TUBES 
THE PHLEGER BOILER 
Tables of Superficial Areas of External Surfaces 
of Tubes of Various Lengths, Diameters in 
Square Feet 
Table of Superficial Areas of Tubes of different 
Lengths.and Diameters from 23 to 8 Inches and 
from 8 to 20 Feet 
STEAM-BOILER CONNECTIONS AND ATTACHMENTS. 
GAUGE-COCKS 
STEAM-GAUGES 
GuLAss WATER-GAUGES 
THE BABCOCK AND WILCOX’s SECTIONAL STEAM: 


BOILER 
. 63 


CONTENTS, 


SAFETY-VALVES 
Table showing the Rise of Safety-valves, in parts 
of an Inch at different Pressures 
Table of Comparison between Experimentai 
Results and Theoretical Formule 
RULES 
WITTINGHAM’S TUBULOUS BOILER 
FOAMING IN STEAM-BOILERS 
INCRUSTATION IN STEAM-BOILERS 
PREVENTION AND REMOVAL OF SCALE IN STEAM: 
BOILERS 
STEAM-BOILER EXPLOSIONS 
EXPERIMENTAL BOILER EXPLOSIONS 
THE Roor BoILeR 
VAGARIES OF EXPERTS IN REGARD TO STEAM. 
BOILER EXPLOSIONS 
DEFECTS IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF STEAM-BOILERS, 
IMPROVEMENTS IN STEAM-BOILERS 
THE ALLEN BOILER. 
CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF STEAM-BOILERS. 
INSTRUCTIONS FOR FIRING 
DAMPERS 
STEAM-BOILER INSPECTION 
Rules for finding the Quantity of Water which 
Boilers and other Cylindrical Vessels are capa- 
ble of Containing 
EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF FUEL ON STEAM- 
BOILERS 
BoILER MATERIALS 
STEEL 
STRENGTH OF IRON BOILER-PLATE 
DEFINITIONS AS APPLIED TO BOILERS AND BOILER 
MATERIALS 
64 


CONTENTS. 


PUNCHED AND DRILLED HOLES FOR BOILER SEAMB. 
Table showing the Strength of Welded Boiler- 
plates 
PATENT BOILERS 
THE GALLOWAY BOILER. 
_ STRENGTH OF RIVETED SEAMS 
COMPARATIVE STRENGTH OF SINGLE- AND DOUBLE- 
RIVETED SEAMS 
HAND- AND MACHINE-RIVETING 
COUNTER-SUNK RIVETS 
RIVETS 
Table showing Diameter and Pitch of Rivets for 
different Thicknesses of Plate 
STRENGTH OF STAYED AND FLAT BOILER SURFACES 
BOILER-STAYS 
STAY-BOLTS 
CALKING 
TESTING-MACHINES 
FEED-WATER HEATERS 
Table showing the Units of Heat required to Con- 
vert One Pound of Water, at the Temperature 
of 32° Fah., into Steam at different Pressures 
GRATE-BARS 
CHIMNEYS. 
Table showing the Proper Diameter and Height 
of Chimney for any kind of Fuel 
Table showing Heights of Chimneys for producing 
certain Rates of Combustion per Square Foot 
of Area of Section of the Chimney 
SMOKE 
CONTRIVANCES FOR INCREASING DRAUGHT AND 


ECONOMIZING FUEL IN BOILER FURNACES 
6* 65 


CONTENTS. 


Table showing the Actual Extension of Wrought- 
iron at various Temperatures 
Table showing the Linear Dilatatiand of solide 
by Heat 
Table deduced from eperrnents on ion lates 
for Steam-boilers, by the Franklin Institute, 
Philadelphia 
Table showing the Results i adnan heaiie 
on different Brands of Boiler Iron at the Stevens 
Institute of Technology, Hoboken, N. J. . : 
Table showing the Weight of Cast-iron Balls from, 
3 to 18 Inches in Diameter. 
Table showing the Weight of Cast-iron Plates pax 
Superficial Foot as per Thickness 
Table showing the Weight of Round-iron oat s 
an Inch to 6 Inches Diameter, One Foot Long. 
Table showing the Weight of Boiler-plates One 
Foot Square and from 7,th to an Inch Thick . 
Table showing the Weight of Square Bar-iron from 
4 an Inch to 6 Inches Square, One Foot Long. 
Table showing the Weight of Cast-iron Pipes, 
One Foot in Length, from 3 Inch to 14 Inches 
Thick, and from 8 to 24 Inches Diameter. 
Table showing the Tensile Strength of various 
Qualities of American and English Cast-iron . 
Table showing the Tensile Strength of various 
Qualities of American Wrought-iron. : 2 
Table showing the Tensile Strength of various 
Qualities of English bas a cea 
To PoLisH Brass 
CEMENT FOR MAKING STEAM- “JOINTS 
STEAM-DAMPERS 


INDEX 
66 


EDWARD MEEKS, 
PHILADELPHIA, 
Publisher of 


Roper’s Hand-Book of the Locomotive, including the 
Modelling, Construction, Running, and Management of 
Locomotive Engines and Boilers. Fully Illustrated. By 
STEPHEN Roper, Engineer. Eleventh Edition, Revised, 
Enlarged and Corrected. 18mo, tuck, gilt edge, $2.50. 


Roper’s Catechism of High Pressure or Non-Condensing 
Steam-Engines, including the Modelling, Construction, 
Running, and Management of Steam-Engines and Boilers. 
With Illustrations. By StrepHEN Roper, Engineer. Twen- 
tieth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 18mo, tuck, gilt 
edge, $2.00. 


Roper’s Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines, includ- 
ing the Modelling, Construction, Running, and Manage- 
ment of Land and Marine Engines and Boilers, with the 
latest improvements in the same. Fully Illustrated. By 
STEPHEN Roper, Engineer. 600 pages. Tenth Edition, 
Revised and Enlarged. 16mo, tuck, gilt edge, $3.50. 


Boper’s Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines, in- 
cluding the Running, Care, and Management of Steam 
Fire-Engines and Fire-Pumps. With Illustrations. By 
SrePHEN Roper, Engineer. It is the only book of the 


kind ever published in this country, as it contains an 
67 


elaborate description of all Modern Steam Fire-Engines, 
Boilers, and Fire-Pumps, and is free from formule or ultra 
mathematical expressions. Fourth Edition. 16mo, tuck, 
gilt edge, $3.50. 


Boper’s Engineer’s Handy-Book. Containing a full expla- 
nation of the Steam-Engine Indicator, and its use and 
advantages to Engineers and Steam Users; with formule 
for estimating the power of all classes of Steam-Engines ; 
also, Facts, Figures, Questions and Tables for Engineers 
who wish to qualify themselves for the United States 
Navy, the Revenue Service, the Mercantile Marine, or to 
take charge of the better class of Stationary Steam-En-. 
gines. With Illustrations. Fourth Edition, Revised and 
Enlarged. By StepHen Roper, Engineer. $3.50. 


Reoper’s Use and Abuse of the Steam-Boiler, including 
its Care and Management. With Illustrations. This is 
the only book ever published in this country devoted ex- 
clusively to Steam-Boilers. It contains illustrations of all 
the different kinds of Steam-Boilers ‘now in use, whether 
Stationary, Locomotive, Fire, or Marine; and also of 
Sectional or Patent Boilers. By STEPHEN RopER, En- 
gineer. Kighth Edition. 18mo, tuck, gilt edge, $2.00. 


hoper’s Questions and Answers for Engineers. This little 

book contains all the Questions that Engineers will be 

asked when undergoing an examination for the purpose 

of procaring a license, with the answers to the same, 

couched in language so plain that any engineer or firemen 

_can in a short time commit them to memory. Price $3.00. 
68 


Roper’s Simple Process for Estimating the Horse-Power of 
Steam-Engines, from Indicator Diagrams, or the work an 
engine was performing at the time the diagram was taken, 
One of the most important devices ever employed in con- 


nection with the Steam-Engine. 50 cents. 


Roper’s Instructions and Suggestions for Engineers and 
Firemen. This little book is made up of a series of sug- 
gestions and instructions, the result of recent experiments 
and the best modern practice in the care of Steam-Engines 
and Boilers. It is brimful of just such information as 
persons of limited education having charge of steam mas 
chinery need. It is written in plain, practical language, 


devoid of theories or mathematical formule. $2.00, 


Roper’s Care and Management of the Steam-Boiler. One 
of the most practical works ever published on this subject, 
as itembraces the following subjects: Care and Manage- 
ment of Steam-Boilers, Horse-Power of Steam-Boilers, 
Repairing Steam-Boilers, Incrustation in Steam-Boilers, 
Steam-Boiler Explosions, Testing Steam-Boilers, Exter- 
nally and Internally Fired Steam-Boilers, Design of Steam- 
Boilers, Steam-Boiler Materials, Mud-Drums, Steam- 
Domes, Cleaning Steam-Boilers, Different Types of Steam- 
Boilers, Feed-Water Heaters, Fuel, Chimneys (area and 
height), Draught, Smoke, Instructions for Firing, Com- 
parative Efficiency of Different Types of Steam-Boilers, 
with a great amount of other information of immense 
value to owners of Steam-Boilers, Engineers, and Firemen, 
expressed in plain, practical language. $2.00. 

6* i 


Roper’s Young Engineer’s Own Book, containing 
an explanation of the Principle and Theories 
on which the Steam-Engine as a Prime Mover 
is based; with a description of different kinds of 
Steam-Engines, Condensing and Non-Condensing, 
Marine, Stationary, Locomotive, Fire, Traction, 
and Portable; together with Instructions how to , 
Design, Proportion, Locate, Repair, Reverse, and 
Rtun all Classes of Steam-Engines, with Tables 
and Formulas for finding their Horse-Power; 
also, Suggestions on the Selections, Care, and 
Management of all Classes of Steam-Engines, 
Boilers, Pumps, Injectors, ete., for the Use of 
Educational Institutions where students are in- 
tended to engage in Mechanical Pursuits, and 
for the Private Instruction of Youths who show 
an Inclination for Steam-Engineering. With 106 
illustrations. By SrepHen Roper, Engineer, 
Author of Roper’s Practical Hand-Books for 
Engineers and Firemen. Second Revised Edition. 


16 mo., tuck, gilt edge, $3.00. 
70 


Bilgram.—Slide-Valve Gears. A new graphical method for 
Analyzing the Action of Slide- Valves, moved by eccentrics 
link-motion, and cut-off gears. By Huco Brueram, M.i 
16mo, cloth. $1.00. ; 

Cooper.—A Treatise on the use of Belting for the Transe 

mission of Power. With numerous illustrations of ap 

proved and actual methods of arranging Main Driving 
and Quarter Twist Belts, and of Belt Fastenings. Exam- 
ples and Rules in great number for exhibiting and calcu. 
lating the size and driving power of Belts, Plain, Particu 
lar, and Practical Directions for the Treatment, Care, 
and Management of Belts. Descriptions of many varieties 
of Beltings, together with chapters on the Transmission 
of Power by Ropes; by Iren and Wood Frictional Gear- 
ing; on the Strength of Belting Leather; and on the Ex- 
perimental Investigations of Morin, Briggs, and others. 

Second Edition. By Jonn H. Cooper, M.E. 1 vol, 

demy octavo, cloth. $3.50. 

Grimshaw.—Saws. The History, Development, Action, 
Classification, and Comparison of Saws of all kinds. 
With Appendices. Concerning the details of manufacture, 
setting, swaging, gumming, filing, etc.. Care and use of 
saws. Tables of gauges. Log measurements. Lists of 
saw patents and other valuable information. Second 
Edition, with Supplement. Profusely Illustrated. By 
RoBpERT GRIMSHAW. Quarto, cloth. $4.00. 

Overman.—Mechanics for the Millwright, Engineer, Ma. 
chinist, Civil Engineer, and Architect. By FREDERICK 
OVERMAN. 12mo, cloth. 150 illustrations. $1.50. 

71 


Riddell.—The Carpenter and Joiner Modernized. Th>rd 
Edition, revised and corrected, containing new matter of 
interest to the Carpenter, Stair-Builder, Carriage-Builder, 
Cabinet-Maker, Joiner, and Mason; also explaining the 
utility of the Slide Rule, lucid examples of its accuracy in 
galculation, showing it to be indispensable to every work 
man in giving the mensuration of surfaces and solids, the 
division of lines into equal parts, circumferences of circles, 
length of rafters and braces, board measure, ete. The 
whole illustrated with numerous engravings. By ROBERT 
RIppDELL. 4to, cloth. $7.50. 


Riddell.—_The New Elements of Hand Railing. Revised 
Edition, containing forty-one plates, thirteen of which are 
now for the first time presented, together with the accom- 
panying letter-press description. The whole giving a 
complete elucidation of the Art of Stair-Building. By 
RosertT RippEtt, author of “The Carpenter and Joiner 
Modernized,” ete. One volume, folio. $7.00. 


Any of the above works will be sent to any part-of the 
United States or Canada on receipt of list price. 


Send money in Registered Letter, P. O. Order, or Postal Note, 


EDWARD MEEKS, Publisher, 
No, 1012 Walnut Street, 
PHILADELPHIA, PA, 
72 








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